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L.  B.   Cat.   No.   II37 


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SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING 

OF  THE 

DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 

by 

Dr.  Martin  Klimmer,  Ph.D.,  D.M.V. 

Professor  of  Hygiene  and  Feeding,  and  Director  of  the  Hygienic 
Institute  of  the  Veterinary  College  of  Dresden 


Third  Revised  and  Enlarged  Edition 
94  Illustrations 


Authorized  Translation  by 

Paul  Fischer,  B.S.A.,  D.V.M. 

Formerly  Professor  of  Pathological  Anatomy  in  the  Ohio  State  University. 
College  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  State  Veterinarian  of  Ohio,  etc. 


Chicago,  U.  S.  A. 

ALEXANDER  EGER,  PUBLISHER 

1923 


Copyright, 

1923, 

by 

Alexander  Eger 


/V*  C-  oiate  crvft^^ 


TRANSLATOR'S  PREFACE 

The  translation  of  Klimmer's  admirable  work  on  Veterinary  Hy- 
giene and  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals  was  undertaken  at  the  siig.- 
gestion  of  the  publisher,  Mr.  Alexander  Eger,  with  the  hope  and  belief 
that  in  doing  so  the  translator  was  rendering  a  real  service. 

While  some  of  the  ideas  and  practices  outlined  in  this  work  do  not 
entirely  fit  into  the  economy  of  our  own  country  and  many  changes 
and  adaptations  might  have  been  made  and  served  a  useful  purpose, 
the  translator  believed  that  a  practically  literal  translation  of  the  work 
as  offered  by  the  author  would  be  not  only  more  interesting  to  the 
American  student  but  really  more  instructive. 

A  comparison  of  the  careful  and  painstaking  methods  of  the  German 
people  and  their  continual  efforts  to  economize,  with  our  own  char- 
acteristically wasteful  practices,  even  though  conditions  prevailing 
with  us  are  entirely  different,  cannot  fail  to  have  a  wholesome  in- 
fluence. 

The  translator  has  therefore  confined  himself  to  adding  only  here 
and  there  a  few  words  of  explanation  which  he  believed  necessary  for 
clearness,  either  in  the  form  of  footnotes  or  remarks  in  parentheses  in 
the  text. 

The  translator  wishes  to  express  his  sincere  thanks  to  his  friend, 
Dr.  J.  R.  Mohler,  Chief  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry, for  reading  the  manuscript  before  its  submission  to  the  printer, 
making  valuable  suggestions  in  the  arrangement  of  the  text  and  add- 
ing instructive  footnotes.  Dr.  Mohler's  suggestion  that  the  extensive 
references  to  technical  literature  which  are  appended  to  most  chapters 
in  the  original  German  edition,  be  omitted,  was  also  followed.  It  was 
mutually  agreed  that  since  this  would  be  of  value  only  to  students 
familiar  with  the  German  language  the  original  work  of  Dr.  Klimmer 
would  be  available  to  them  for  such  references. 

The  translator  wishes  further  to  express  his  appreciation  to  the 
publisher,  Mr.  Eger,  for  his  patience  in  overlooking  the  many  annoy- 
ing but  unavoidable  delays  in  preparing  the  manuscript  and  reading 
the  final  proof  of  this  translation. 

Paul   Fischer. 

Bartow,  Florida. 
February  10,  1923. 


11229 


ABSTRACT  FROM  THE  PREFACE  TO  THE 
FIRST  EDITION 

In  accordance  with  the  great  practical  importance  of  a  knowledge 
of  feeding  and  of  injurious  feed  admixtures  I  have  devoted  liberal 
space  to  this  department  of  veterinary  hygiene.  The  principles  of 
feeding  as  elaborated  in  this  work  have  been  based  upon  the  epoch 
making  labors  of  Kellner  who  has  directed  the  study  of  this  science 
into  new  channels.  The  kindness  and  obligingness  of  Prof.  Dr.  Kell- 
ner and  of  the  Publishing  House  of  Paul  Parey  has  made  it  possible 
to  include  the  tables  on  the  composition,  digestibility  and  starch  value 
of  feeding  stuffs  to  which  I  have  added  for  the  sake  of  handy  reference 
the  digestible  albumen  and  starch  value  ratios  as  well  as  the  table  of 
condensed  feeding  standards.  I  consider  it  a  pleasant  duty  to  express 
my  sincere  thanks  for  the  kind  permission  granted  to  publish  these 
tables. 
Dresden,  in  the  fall  of  1917. 


ABSTRACT  FROM  THE  PREFACE  TO  THE 
SECOND  EDITION 

In  revising  this  work  it  has  been  my  endeavor  to  correct  any  exist- 
ing shortcomings  of  the  first  edition  which  have  been  kindly  pointed 
out  by  my  critics,  and  further,  to  make  such  changes  and  additions  as 
recent  investigations  and  discoveries  demanded. 
Dresden,  November,  1913. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION 

The  recent  decision  in  favor  of  the  separate  consideration  of  the 
study  of  feeding  and  veterinary  hygiene  in  the  college  courses  of 
veterinary  medicine  and  in  state  examinations  has  been  the  motive  for 
the  publication  in  two  separate  volumes,  "Veterinary  Hygiene"  and 
"Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals,"  of  my  former  work  which  was  pub- 
lished under  the  common  title  of  "Veterinary  Hygiene."*  Whether 
this  division  and  separate  consideration  of  the  subjects  was  practical 
and  necessary  is  a  matter  concerning  which  differences  of  opinion  may 
well  exist.    I  regret  it. 

The  fact  remains  that  animal  nutrition  is  one  of  the  most  important 
branches  of  the  study  of  veterinary  hygiene.  A  sharp  distinction  be- 
tween these  two  divisions  is  not  always  possible. 


♦Note.    First  Volume.    Hygiene  of  the  Domesticated  Animals.     Third  revised 
and  enlarged  edition.    With  270  illustrations.     About  440  pages.     Berlin.     1921. 

V 


Important  sections  as  for  instance  those  on  injurious  feed  ad- 
mixtures and  pasturag-e,  which  to  this  day  are  considered  as  coming 
properly  under  the  subject  of  veterinary  hygiene,  constitute  an  inti- 
mate connecting  link  between  hygiene  and  feeding.  Furthermore,  I 
do  not  consider  it  wise  that  a  comparatively  restricted  field  of  study 
which  is  practically  complete  in  itself  (Veterinary  Hyg-iene)  should  be 
artificially  subdivided  into  two  dependent  halves  (hygiene  and  feed- 
ing). Not  even  the  temporary  interests  of  the  student  would  justify 
such  unwarranted  proceedings.  On  the  contrary,  pedagogic  interests 
would  be  served  by  dealing  with  related  subjects  under  as  few  heads 
as  possible  instead  of  an  indefinite  splitting  up  of  subjects  into  every 
possible  kind  of  specialty. 

Notwithstanding  my  objections  to  this  division  of  veterinary  hy- 
giene into  separate  sciences  I  have  submitted  to  the  trend  of  the  times 
and  published  my  "Veterinary  Hygiene"  in  two  parts,  "The  Science 
of  Feeding"  and  "Hygiene  of  Domesticated  Animals."  As  long  as  the 
entire  work  was  published  in  one  volume,  objections  were  not  so 
serious  because  the  whole  subject  was  always  at  hand  for  reference. 
But  this  no  longer  holds  since  the  increased  bulk  of  the  work  made  its 
publication  in  two  volumes  almost  necessary. 

In  the  revision  of  the  work  numerous  additions  were  called  for  in 
every  part,  thus  the  enlargement  of  the  chapter  on  the  conservation 
and  preparation  of  feeding  stuffs,  the  preparation  of  a  key  for  the 
determination  of  the  most  important  meadow  grasses  and  descriptions 
of  the  same,  the  sections  of  feed  for  goats,  dogs,  poultry,  ducks,  geese, 
rabbits  and  fish.  Discussions  of  several  new  feeding  stuffs  and  substi- 
tute feeding  stuffs  have  also  been  added  and  the  chapters  on  examina- 
tion of  feeding  stuffs  and  contaminations  have  been  enlarged.  Indi- 
vidual and  group  feeding  have  also  received  additional  discussion.  To 
conform  with  modern  efforts  to  feed  for  economic  production.  The 
addition  of  58  new  cuts  is  believed  to  be  a  decided  help  in  the  study  of 
this  work. 

In  the  revision  of  this  work  the  extraordinary  practical  importance 
of  the  subject  of  "feeding"  to  the  veterinary  and  agricultural  interests 
has  been  kept  constantly  in  mind. 

My  sincerest  thanks  are  extended  to  Dr.  Haupt  and  to  Dr.  Scha- 
dowsky  for  the  laborious  work  of  correcting  the  proof,  and  to  the  pub- 
lishing house  of  Paul  Parey  for  its  ready  compliance  with  all  my 
requests. 

May  the  revised  third  edition  in  its  new  form  meet  with  the  same 
kindly  reception  by  its  readers  and  critics  as  was  the  fate  of  its 
predecessors. 

M.  Klimmer. 
Dresden,  Fall  of  1920. 


CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION 

Page 

Politico-economical  Considerations  on  Animal  Husbandry  and  Feeding     .  1 

SECTION  I 

Feeding  Stuffs 

A.  General  Matter 2 

a.  Chemical    Composition   of    Feeding    Stuffs 2 

Nutrients  and  Condimental  Substances 2 

I.  Water   and   dry   matter 3 

II.  Salts 4 

III.  Albumens 5 

Appendix:     Ferments    (enzymes)    and   Vitamins 7 

Nitrogenous  compounds,  not  belonging  to  the  albumens  (amido- 
compounds,   nitrogen-containing  glycosids,   alkaloids,   salts   of 

ammonia  and  nitric  acid 8 

IV.  Fats 10 

V.  Carbohydrates 11 

1.  Crude  fiber  (cellulose,  pentosanes) 11 

2.  Nitrogen-free  extractives  (easily  digestible  carbo-hydrates), 

(starch,  cellulose,  dextrine,  sugars,  pectin  substances,  pen- 
tosanes and  pentoses),  organic  acids  (lactic,  formic,  acetic, 
butyric,  malic,  tartaric,  citric  and  tannic  acids),  nitrogen 

free  glycosids   and  bitter  principles 12 

b.  The   Conservation  and   Preparation  of  Feeding   Stuffs     ...  16 
I.  Conservation 16 

1.  Storage 16 

2.  Drying 19 

a.  Hay   Making 19 

b.  Artificial  drying 21 

3.  The  Conservation  of  Feeding  Stuffs  by  means  of  Fermenta- 

tion        23 

a.  Baked  hay 23 

b.  Brown  hay 23 

c.  Sweet   Silage 24 

d.  Sour  Silage 27 

II.  The   Preparation   of  Feeding  Stuffs     .........  28 

1.  The  reduction  of  coarse  material  into  fine  particles     ...  28 

2.  Moistening  and   Soaking 28 

3.  Cooking,  scalding  and  steaming 28 

4.  Roasting 28 

5.  Leaching 28 

6.  Fermenting 28 

7.  The   Conversion   of  Indigestible  into   Digestible    Matter     .  28 

8.  Predigestion 28 

9.  Baking 28 

B.  The  Most  Important  Feeding  Stuffs 34 

I.  Green  Forage 35 

Botanical  Matters  relating  to  pastures  and  Pasture  Grasses   .      .  35 

Sweet  Grasses.    Key  for  their  Determination 36 

Sour   grasses.     Scouring   Rushes 43 

Herbaceous  -Meadow  plants 44 

Chemical  Study  of  Pasture  Grasses 44 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

Page 

Affect  of  Age  of  Plants,  Soil,  Fertilization,  Weather  and     .      .  45 

Climate  on  Composition  of  Plants 45 

Hygienic  Matter.    Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Soiling     .  45 

Diseases,  effect  upon  milk 46 

Uses  of  Green  Forages 47 

Green  Rye,  Wheat,  Barley,  Indian   Corn,  Sorghum     ....  47 

Varieties  of  Clovers,  Nutritive  Value,  Disadvantages     ....  49 

Lupines,  Clovers,  Kidney  Vetch,  Esparcet,  Serradella,  etc.     .      .  50 

Leaves  of  Beets,  Chicory,  Comfrey,  Potato  tops,  Thistles     .      .  56 

Prickly  Dyer's  Broom,  Fungi 56 

IL  Roughage 57 

1.  Hay         57 

a.  Meadow  Hay  and  Aftermath 57 

Judging  the  Value  of  Hay 58 

Irrigated  Meadows,  Woodland,  Alpine  and  Salt  Marsh 

Hay 59 

Hygienic  Requirements  and  Uses  of  Various  Kinds  of 

Hay 61 

Sweet  Silage  and  Sour  Ensilage 62 

b.  Clover  Hay,  Lupine  Hay,  Leaf  Hay  and  Twig  Hay     .  63 

2.  Straw 65 

3.  Chaff  and  Hulls 68 

III.  Roots  and  Tubers 69 

1.  Potatoes 69 

2.  Artichokes 73 

3.  Beets 74 

IV.  Cereal    Grains,    Legume    Seeds 76 

1.  The  Cereal  Grains 76 

Structure  of  cereal  grains 77 

Judging  the  Value  of  Cereal  Grains 77 

Requirements  for  Soundness 77 

a.  Oats 81 

Varieties  of  Oats 81 

The  grain  of  the  Oat,  the  oat  hull,  chemical  composition  81 

Digestibility  and  Agreeability,  Judging  the  Value  of  the  83 

Oat  Grain,  Uses  and  Substitutes 86 

b.  Barley 87 

c.  Rye   and   Wheat 90 

d.  Indian    Corn 91 

e.  Millet  and  Rice 92 

f.  Buckwheat 93 

2.  The  Seeds  of  Legumes 93 

a.  Field  bean.   Peas,  Vetches  and   Serradella     ....  93 

b.  Lupines 96 

c.  Soybean 97 

Miscellaneous  Seeds.   Field  Spurry,  Flax  Seed,  Rape,  Turnip 

seed,    Hemp    seed,    Buck    wheat,    Acorns,    Buckeyes    and 
Beechnuts 98 

V.  Milling  By-Products 99 

VI.  Brewery  and  Distillery  By-Products 103 

1.  Brewery  By-Products 103 

2.  Distillery  Wastes  or  By-Products 105 

3.  By-Products  of  Wineries  and  Ciderpresses 107 

VII.  Sugar  Refinery  By-Products 107 

VIII.  Starch   Factory  By-Products Ill 

IX.  By-Products  of  Oil  Production 112 

X.  Feeding  Stuffs  of  Animal  Origin 124 

XL  Substitute  Feeding  Stuffs 128 

XII.  Calculation  of  the  Money,  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs     ....  129 

XIII.  Examination  or  Inspection  of  Feeding  Stuffs 131 

C.  General  Rules  for  the  Purchase  of  Commercial  Feeding  Stuffs   .     .      .      .131 

Hygienic   Examination   of   Feeding   Stuffs 133 


CXDNTENTS  ix 

Page 

1.  Chemical  Examination 134 

a.  Determination  of  Albumen,  Fat,  Nitrogen-free  Extract, 

Crude  Fiber,  Salts  and  Water 134 

b.  Determination  of  Sand,  Lime,  Infusorial  Earth,  Barite 

and  other  minerals 134 

c.  Determination  of  Corn  cockle,  Ergot,  etc.,  in  Meals  by 

means  of  Vogl's  Reagent 134 

d.  lodin-Starch  Reaction 134 

e.  Testing  Spoiled  Feeding  Stuffs 134 

2.  Biological   (serological)    Examination 135 

3.  Microscopical  Examination .    136 

Preparation  of  Feeding  Stuffs  for  Microscopical  Examination  136 

Examination  for  Starch  Grains .137 

Examination  of  By-Products  Containing  Shells,  Hulls,  Skins, 

etc 141 

a.  Meals,  and  Brans  of  Rye,  Wheat,  Barley,  Corn  and  Oats  142 

b.  By-Products   of    Oil    Production 143 

c.  Leguminosae 144 

d.  Adulterations    (rice   chaff,   stone    fruit   pits,    saw   dust, 

screenings,  seeds  of  weeds,  corn  cockle,  castor  beans, 
etc.)  144 

4.  Bacteriological  Examination 147 

CONTENTS 

SECTION  II 

Principles  of  Nutrition  and  Feeding 

A.  General  Matter 148 

Insufficient  Nutriment,   Overfeeding,  Complete   Feeding  Stuffs,   Basal 
Feeding  Stuffs,  Supplemental  Feeding  Stuffs  and  By-Feeds     .      .      .148 

Concentrates,   Roughages,   Organic   Feeding   Stuffs,   Combustibles  and 
Fuel  Value,  Maintenance  and  Production  Rations,  Assimilation  and 

Utilization 149 

I.  Nutrient  Requirements      . ISO 

1.  Assimilation  and  Utilization 150 

2.  Organic   Nutrients 151 

3.  Inorganic  Nutrients 154 

4.  Testing   Feed   Utilization   and   Assimilation 161 

II.  Calculation  of  Feeding  Rations  and  Feeding 164 

B.  Special  Feeding 173 

I.  Maintenance  Feed  (For  Oxen  and  Wool-producing  Sheep)    .      .    173 
II.  Rations  for  Work  Animals 175 

1.  For  Oxen 176 

2.  For  Horses 177 

III.  Rations  for  Growing  Animals 179 

1.  Rations  for  Colts 182 

2.  Rations  for  Calves 183 

3.  Rations  for  Lambs 188 

4.  Rations  for  Pigs         190 

IV.  Fattening  Rations  for  Mature  Animals 193 

1.  Fattening  Rations  for  Mature  Ruminants   .      .      .      .      .      .194 

2.  Fattening  Rations  for  Mature  Swine      .      .      .   '  .      .      .      .198 
V.  Rations  for  Dairy  Animals 198 

1.  The  Influence  of  Feed  on  Milk  Secretion 199 

2.  Standardization  of  Rations  for  Cows 201 

3.  Rations  for   Goats 204 

VI.  Rations  for  Dogs 205 

VII.  Poultry  Feed 207 

1.  Feeding  Chickens 207 

2.  Feeding  Ducks 212 


CONTENTS 

Page 

3.  Feeding  Geese 213 

VIII.  Rations  for  Rabbits 214 

IX.  Feed  for  Fish 215 

A.  Fertilization 215 

B.  Artificial  Feeding 221 

Appendix.     Dietetic   Feed   Mixtures 223 

Table    I.  The  Composition,  Value,  Digestible  Albumen  Content,  Starch 

Value,  and  Albumen-Starch-Value  Ratio  of  Feeding  Stuffs  225 

Table  II.  The  Composition  of  the  Salts  in  Feeding  Stufifs     ....  228 

Index 233 


Introduction 

Scientific  feeding  may  be  defined  as  the  conversion  of  elementary- 
feeding  stuffs  into  animal  product  or  performance.  Since  domestic  ani- 
mals are  not  kept  for  their  own  sake,  but  for  the  profit  of  their  owners, 
they  must  be  kept  and  fed  upon  a  purely  economic  basis.  With  due  at- 
tention to  the  question  of  health,  our  every  effort  should  be  directed  to 
maximum  production  at  minimum  expense.  The  cost  of  feed  alone 
represents  a  very  considerable  item  in  the  expense  of  growing  or  keep- 
ing an  animal.  Important  economies  may  be  practiced  in  the  selection 
of  feeding  stuffs  by  substituting  the  less  expensive  for  higher  priced 
material  of  the  same  feeding  value.  In  connection  with  the  problem  of 
feeding  for  production  or  gain,  that  of  maintenance  during  certain  un- 
productive intervals,  as,  for  example,  dry  milk  cows,  or  work  horses  in 
the  idle  season,  is  of  equal  importance. 

The  actual  cost  of  the  feed  which  enters  into  production  expense  will 
be  discussed  more  in  detail  in  the  sections  on  the  money  value  of  feeding 
stufifs  and  the  testing  of  feed-utilization.  In  passing  it  may  be  remarked, 
however,  that  the  cost  of  production  very  frequently  is  altogether  out  of 
proportion  to  the  actual  gain  secured,  whether  this  be  due  to  the  presence 
of  so-called  passive  animals  or  to  the  selection  of  unnecessarily  high- 
priced  feeding  stuffs  when  equally  good  material  at  a  lower  market  price 
might  have  been  available.  Thus  the  use  of  comparatively  high-priced 
oats  for  horses,  high-priced  bran  for  milk  cows  and  high  priced  barley  for 
swine  is  not  economical  when  cheaper  feeding  stuffs,  such  as  potatoes, 
dry  yeast,  oil  cake,  etc.,  of  equal  feeding  value,  can  be  obtained  and  sub- 
stituted. The  Paris  Omnibus  Company  with  its  12,000  horses  in  this 
manner  reduced  the  feeding  expense  of  its  horses  by  nearly  20  per  cent. 
The  animals  thrived  under  the  new  conditions  and  continued  to  perform 
satisfactorily.  In  this  respect  the  late  war  taught  us  many  valuable 
lessons. 

In  feeding  for  profit  not  only  the  market  value  of  the  feed  but,  in  no 
less  degree,  the  resulting  animal  product  and  service  must  be  taken  into 
consideration. 

Feeding  must  be  conducted  upon  an  individual  basis.  Fattening  a 
draft  horse  is  just  as  injudicious  as  starving  a  milk  cow  at  the  expense 
of  reduced  milk  secretion. 

In  most  agricultural  and  industrial  establishments  rational  feeding  has 
not  yet  received  the  attention  which,  in  the  present  depressed  economic 
conditions,  is  demanded  more  than  ever  before.  Modem  feeding  technic 
can  be  the  means  of  adding  enormously  to  the  national  wealth.  To  ac- 
complish this  end  we  must  use  more  arithmetic.    Our  farmers  should  be 

1 


2  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

continually  reminded  of  this  fact.  In  herds  of  thirty  cows  an  annual 
saving  of  1,000  marks  ($250)  is  in  many  cases  easily  possible.  Econ- 
omies of  this  kind  are  no  more  important  to  the  agriculturist  than  to  the 
country  in  general.  The  enormous  sums  of  money  that  are  expended  for 
commercial  feeding  stuffs  go  for  the  most  part  to  foreign  countries.  Dur- 
ing the  last  pre-war  years  about  800,000,000  marks  ($200,000,000)  were 
thus  exported  to  foreign  countries. 

The  science  of  feeding  may  be  divided  into:  1.  The  study  of  feeding 
stuffs.  This  treats  of  origin,  characteristics,  composition,  digestibility, 
palatability,  advantages  and  disadvantages,  impurities  and  adulterations, 
judging  and  using  the  various  feeding  stuffs,  and  their  feeding  value. 

2.  The  study  of  the  laws  of  feeding  and  nutrition.  These  treat  above 
all  of  the  food  demands  of  animals  for  the  varied  economic  purposes,  the 
practical  meeting  of  these  demands  by  feeding  and  the  principles  under- 
lying them. 

The  study  of  injurious  or  unwholesome  qualities  or  ingredients  of  feeds 
is  most  intimately  associated  with  the  study  of  feeding  and  with  that  of 
feeding  stuffs  in  particular.  A  sharp  distinction  is  therefore  not  always 
possible.  In  spite  of  this  intimate  relationship  the  subject  is  not  covered 
in  this  work,  but  in  conformity  to  accepted  custom  is  included  in  and 
treated  with  the  subjects  grouped  under  the  term  "hygiene." 

Section  I 
Feeding  Stuffs 

The  term  "feeding  stuffs"  is  applied  to  organic  or  inorganic  food  mate- 
rial of  any  character  that  will  serve  as  nourishment  for  domestic  animals 
and  at  the  same  time,  when  fed  within  practical  limits,  will  not  injure  the 
health.  Indigestible  (muck,  rice  hulls,  etc.)  or  poisonous  substances 
(poisonous  plants,  etc.)  are  not  included  in  this  term. 

A.     Chemical  Constituents 

Feeding  stuffs,  as  a  rule,  consist  of  a  combination  of  several  basic  com- 
ponents— nutrient  elements  or  nutrients.  In  addition  they  often  contain 
so-called  condimental  or  flavoring  elements.  The  term  nutrient  includes 
all  those  component  parts  of  feeding  stuffs  which,  after  digestion  and 
absorption,  serve  to  produce  heat  and  energy  (combustibles),  or  the 
building  of  tissue  (organogenic  substances)  or  which  are  necessary  in 
any  other  normal  function  of  the  body. 
Nutrients  are  classified  as  follows: 

I.     Inorganic.     (1)  Water,    (2)   Salts,  mineral  matter  or  ash. 
II.     Organic.        (a)   Nitrogen-containing,   or    (3)    albuminous 
'^     substances  or  protein, 
(b)' Nitrogen-free,  or   (4)    fats  and    (5)   car- 
bohydrates. 


FEEDING  STUFFS  3 

Thus  the  five  groups  of  nutrients  may  be  divided  or  classified  as  water, 
salts,  albuminous  substances,  fats  and  carbohydrates. 

APPETIZERS  are  substances  which,  though  possessing  no  nutritive 
value,  have  the  efifect  of  stimulating  the  appetite  and  secretion  of  digestive 
fluids.  In  addition  there  should  be  recognized  certain  salts,  ethereal  oils, 
bitter  principles,  vegetable  acids  and  alkaloids  (in  small  quantities). 

I.     Water  and  Dry  Matter 

The  term  "water"  is  in  a  general  way  applied  to  that  constituent  of 
feeding  stufifs  which  evaporates  upon  drying  at  a  temperature  of  102°  C. 
(215.6°  F.).  Loss  from  evaporation  is  not  always  limited  to  pure  water, 
but  includes  ethereal  oils,  as  well  as  products  of  decomposition,  such  as 
lactic  acid,  butyric  acid,  acetic  acid,  ammonia,  etc.,  which  should  properly 
be  added  to  the  residue.    The  residue  represents  the  "dry  matter." 

Feeding  stufifs  having  a  perfectly  dry  appearance,  so-called  air-dried 
feeding  stufifs,  as  grain,  bran,  meal,  oil  cake,  hay  and  straw,  contain  a 
certain  amount  of  water,  on  an  average  10  to  15  per  cent. 

All  green  forages  contain  a  high  percentage  of  water,  averaging  from 
75  to  90  per  cent.  The  same  is  true  of  root  crops  and  potatoes  and  their 
factory  waste  products.  Potatoes  contain  70  to  75  per  cent  of  water, 
beets  80  to  85  per  cent,  beet  pulp  90  per  cent,  distillery  slop  94  per  cent, 
etc. 

The  relative  proportion  of  dry  matter  and  water  in  the  food  require- 
ments of  dififerent  species  of  animals  varies  thus :  Horse,  1  to  2  or  3 : 
ox,  1  to  4  or  5;  sheep,  1  to  2;  swine,  1  to  6  or  7.  It  is  thus  evident  that 
swine  thrive  best  on  the  more  succulent  feeds,  horses  and  sheep  on  com- 
paratively dry  feeds,  and  cattle  on  intermediate  combinations.  Feeds  too 
rich  in  water  should  be  avoided. 

The  water  content  of  feeding  stufifs  aflfects  their  feeding  value.  Succu- 
lent plants  are  less  nutritious,  or  contain  less  nutrient  material,  than  less 
succulent  or  dry  plants  of  the  same  species.  Grasses  from  meadows  or 
pastures  that  were  too  wet  (too  much  rain  or  irrigation)  during  the  grow- 
ing season  contain  more  water  and  less  dry  matter  and  are  consequently 
less  nutritious  than  when  grown  under  opposite  conditions.  Forage  plants 
grown  in  the  shade  of  trees  or  in  other  protected  places  usually  contain 
proportionately  less  dry  matter  than  in  the  same  species  grown  under 
more  natural  conditions. 

A  knowledge  of  the  water  content  of  feeding  stufifs  is  important  also 
with  reference  to  their  keeping  qualities.  Feeding  stufifs  rich  in  water 
spoil  easily  (slop  and  beet  and  potato  pulp).  Meals  and  oil  cakes  are 
subject  to  decomposition  and  molding  when  they  contain  an  excess  of 
water  (over  14  per  cent). 

Mold  fungi  predominate  when  the  water  content  is  between  15  and  30 
per  cent,  while  decomposition  bacteria  predominate  when  the  moisture 
exceeds  30  per  cent. 

Determination  of  moisture  content. — The  substance  to  be  analyzed  should  first 
be  finely  ground  in  a  small  mill.    Five  or  ten  grams  of  the  powdered  product  are 


4  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

placed  in  a  drying  glass  (Erlenmeyer  flask)  and  dried  at  102  to  105"  C.  until  the 
weight  has  become  constant.  This  usually  requires  from  three  to  five  hours.  The 
loss  in  weight  represents  the  moisture  content.  In  the  case  of  succulent  material, 
carefully  weighed  portions  may  be  cut  into  small  pieces,  thoroughly  dried,  then 
ground  in  a  mill,  as  above,  and  desiccated  in  the  same  manner. 
II.  Salts,  Mineral  Matter,  or  Ash 

The  mineral  matter  (sahs,  ash  or  inorganic  matter)  is  what  remains 
after  destruction  of  the  dry  organic  matter  by  burning. 

The  ash  obtained  from  the  weighed  portion  of  the  air-dried  substance  by  the 
usual  method  of  burning  does  not,  however,  represent  the  exact  amount  of  rnineral 
matter.  On  the  one  hand,  small  quantities  of  inorganic  combinations  of  chlorin  and 
sulphur  are  lost  by  volatilization ;  on  the  other  hand  carbonic,  sulphuric  and  phos- 
phoric acids  are  formed  from  the  organic  substance  (e.g.,  the  albuminous  portions) 
during  the  process  of  combustion,  combine  chemically  with  potassium,  sodium,  lime 
and  magnesia,  and  remain  as  a  residue  in  the  ash.  Thus,  when  absolute  accuracy 
is  not  essential,  we  merely  determine  the  weight  of  the  white  (crude)  ash,  which 
may  contain  besides  carbon  dioxid,  small  amounts  of  charcoal  and  silica  (or  sand). 
For  accurate  results  it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  amount  of  CO2  which  entered 
into  combination  with  mineral  matter  during  combustion,  and  subtract  the  amount, 
with  that  of  the  silica,  from  the  weight  of  the  ash.  (For  further  details  see  Bey- 
thien,  Hartwig  and  Klimmer), 

The  principal  mineral  constituents  of  feeding  stuffs  are  potash,  sodium, 
calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  aluminum,  manganese,  phosphoric  acid,  sul- 
phuric acid,  silicic  acid  and  chlorin.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  pres- 
ent occasionally  and  in  small  quantities  or  traces  lithium,  barium,  rubid- 
ium, caesium,  iodin,  bromin,  etc.  Under  exceptional  conditions  there  may 
be  present  lead,  copper,  arsenic,  zinc.  With  reference  to  these  poison- 
ous mineral  constituents,  see  Klimmer,  Veterinary  Hygiene.  The  mineral 
elements  appear  in  the  composition  of  plants,  in  part  as  inorganic  salts, 
in  part  as  organic  combinations.  The  latter  are  especially  valuable  and 
important  in  the  process  of  nutrition  on  accoimt  of  the  facility  with  which 
they  are  absorbed  into  the  tissues. 

The  amount  and  character  of  the  mineral  matter  in  the  different  feed- 
ing stuffs  varies  according  to  the  species  of  plant,  the  part  of  the  plant  in 
question,  as  well  as  soil,  fertility  and  weather  conditions.  Methods  of 
curing  and  commercial  processes  often  affect  the  proportion  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  The  importance  of  salts  or  mineral  matter  in  nutrition 
as  well  as  in  the  conservation  of  health  and  efficiency  of  our  domestic 
animals  is  frequently  not  sufficiently  appreciated.  Special  consideration 
should  be  given  to  the  mineral  constituents  of  feeding  rations,  especially 
where  the  feeding  is  more  or  less  artificial.  Feeding  stuffs  do  not  always 
contain  a  sufficient  amount  of  mineral  matter,  especially  of  lime,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  sodium  chlorid.  Less  frequently  they  are  deficient  in 
potash.  In  dry  seasons  plants  take  up  less  mineral  matter  than  in  wet 
seasons  for  the  reason  that  the  necessary  solvent,  water,  is  absent.  Soils 
deficient  in  these  salts  produce  plants  similarly  deficient,  etc. 

In  regard  to  the  occurrence  of  the  nutrient  salts  in  feeding  stuffs,  the 
following  should  be  noted : 

Potash  is  abundant  in  so-called  root  croops  (potatoes,  artichokes,  beets 
and  beet  molasses),  in  the  seeds  and  straw  of  leguminous  plants  (excepting 
lupines),  also  in  the  hulls  of  beans,  in  young  forage  plants  (aftermath), 


FEEDING  STUFFS  S 

in  wheat  bran,  rye  bran,  malt  sprouts,  and  in  most  oily  seeds  (flax  seed), 
and  oil  cakes ;  in  animal  feeding  stuffs  like  skim  milk,  whey,  meat,  cock 
chafer  or  May  bug,  in  most  vegetables,  and  in  all  spices  (seeds).  Sour 
grasses  (reeds  and  sedges)  corn  cobs,  and  all  leached  feeding  stuflfs,  such 
as  hay  and  roughage  that  have  been  wet  with  rain,  beet  and  potato  pulp, 
brewers'  grains  and  American  meat  meal  (tankage),  are  deficient  in 
potash  salts. 

Most  feeding  stuffs  contain  a  very  low  percentage  of  sodium  salts, 
hence  the  desirability  of  adding  common  salt  to  rations.  Sodium  salts 
are  more  abundant  in  certain  tubers  and  roots  as  well  as  in  the  young 
growth  of  forage  plants  or  hay.    The  same  may  be  said  of  chlorin. 

All  clovers  are  usually  rich  in  lime  salts,  which  is  true  also  of  the  better 
sorts  of  meadow  grasses,  the  straw  of  legumes  and  the  hulls  of  buck- 
wheat. On  the  other  hand,  the  straw  of  the  various  species  of  grains 
and  chaff,  all  root  crops,  distillery  slops,  the  cereals,  legume  seeds  and 
malt  sprouts  are  deficient  in  lime  salts. 

Magnesium  salts  are  abundant  in  the  grains,  grasses  and  clovers.  Most 
other  feeding  stuffs  contain  magnesium  salts  in  sufficient  quantity.  The 
salts  of  iron  are  usually  present  in  sufficient  quantity  in  most  feeding 
stuffs. 

The  following  are  usually  rich  in  phosphoric  acid :  Good  green  forage 
and  hay,  all  seeds,  bran  and  malt  sprouts,  some  oil  cakes,  also  milk  and 
meat.  Phosphoric  acid  occurs  chiefly  in  organic  compounds.  Other  feed- 
ing stuffs,  and  especially  straw  and  flour  made  from  the  various  grains, 
beets  and  beet  pulp,  contain  little  phosphoric  acid. 

III.    Albuminous  Substances;  Protein 

The  combustible  portion  of  the  dry  matter,  the  organic  material,  in- 
cludes the  proteids,  fats  and  carbohydrates.  According  to  their  properties 
and  their  physiological  action  these  are  divided  into  two  groups,  the 
nitrogenous  bodies  or  albuminous  substances  and  the  fats  and  carbo- 
hydrates which  latter  contains  no  nitrogen.  Fats  and  carbyhydrates  are 
composed  entirely  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  They  therefore  con- 
tain no  nitrogen  whatever.  They  have  similar  physiological  actions  and 
may  be  substituted  for  each  other.  The  proteids,  on  the  other  hand,  con- 
tain nitrogen  in  addition  to  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  The  proteids 
may  take  the  place  of  carbohydrates,  but  the  latter  cannot  be  substituted 
for  the  proteids. 

Since  nitrogen  occurs  only  in  the  proteids,  but  not  in  the  fats  and  carbohydrates, 
and  since  it  is  present  in  more  or  less  constant  proportions  (average  16  per  cent),  it 
is  used  in  the  quantitative  determination  of  proteids  in  feeding  stuffs.  Kjeldal's 
method  for  the  determination  of  proteids  is  used  almost  exclusively  at  the  present 
time  and  is  as  follows : 

Place  one  or  two  grams  of  dry  feeding  stuff  (10  to  20  grams  of  fluid  material) 
in  a  combustion  flask  (Fig.  1)  of  high  fusibility,  add  20  cc.  of  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  (to  which  there  should  usually  have  been  added  200  to  250  gm.  of  phosphoric 
anhydrid  per  liter)  and  one  drop  of  mercury,  as  oxygen  carrier.  The  flask,  set  at 
an  angle,  is  heated  until  the  solution  has  become  completely  colorless.  Combustion 
is  usually  complete  in  the  course  of  three  hours.     The  nitrogen  which  is  present 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


in  chemical  combination  in  the   feeding  stuffs  is  thereby  converted  into  ammonia 
which  combines  with  the  sulphuric  acid. 

After  completion  of  combustion  the  mass  is  allowed  to  cool,  and  the  residue  is 
diluted  by  the  addition  of  20  cc.  of  water.  After  cooling,  add  80  cc.  of  a  solution 
of  caustic  soda  (free  from  nitric  acid)  and  sp.  gr.  1.  35;  25  cc.  of  4  percent  potas- 
sium sulphid  solution  (to  precipitate  the  mercury)  and  a  few  granules  of  zinc,  and 
connect  immediately  with  distillation  tube  (Fig.  2).  The  latter  terminates  with  its 
distal  end  in  an  Erlenmeyer  flask  (condenser)  which  contains  10  to  20  cm.  normal 
sulphuric  acid  and  sufficient  water  so  that  the  end  of  the  distillation  tube  dips  into 
the  fluid.  After  about  100  cc.  of  the  fluid  has  been  evaporated  and  the  reaction  as 
determined  by  test  paper  in  the  distillation  tube  is  still  neutral,  the  excess  sulphuric 
acid  in  the  condenser  is  titrated  back  with  one-quarter  normal  caustic  soda  solution 
to  which  has  been  added  cochineal  tincture  or  Congo  red  as  an  indicator.  The  nitro- 
gen is  then  calculated  from  the  ammonia  which  has  been  distilled  over  (17  parts  of 
ammonia  represent  14  parts  of  nitrogen).  (For  further  details  see  Beythien,  Hart- 
wich  and  Klimmer). 


Fig.  1.    Determination  of  nitrogen  by  Kjedahl's  method,    a,  Combustion 


ks.    b,  exsiccator. 


The  weight  of  nitrogen  thus  obtained  is  multiplied  by  6.25  to  obtain  the  weight 
of  crude  protein   (6.25  parts  protein  contain  one  part  nitrogen  by  weight). 

The  amount  of  crude  protein  thus  indicated  corresponds  only  approximately  to 
the  albumins  present,  since  the  actual  nitrogen  content  of  albumins  is  not  always 
exactly  16  percent  but  varies  between  15  and  19  percent.  And  again,  feeding  stuffs 
contain  other  nitrogen  compounds  besides  proteids  (amids,  alkaloids,  ammonia,  nitric 
acid,  etc. —  (see  pp.  8  and  9).  Both  of  these  sources  of  error,  however,  are  small 
in  most  feeding  stuffs,  are  partly  compensating,  and  may  therefore  be  ignored  for 
practical  purposes.  In  certain  feeding  stuffs,  however,  considerable  quantities  of 
nitrogen-containing  compounds,  besides  the  proteins,  are  present,  e.  g.,  beets  and  the 
leaves  of  cabbage,  and  these  must  be  removed  from  the  proteids  before  combustion. 

This  is  usually  done  according  to  Stutzer's  method.  Place  2  gm.  of  the  finely 
pulverized  material  into  a  breaker,  add  1(X)  cc.  of  water  and  heat  to  boiling  tem- 
perature, treat  with  0.4  gm.  cupric  hydroxid  (in  case  of  substances  rich  in  phosphoric 
acid  add,  in  addition,  a  few  cubic  centimeters  of  alum  solution).  Filter  when  cool, 
wash  the  residue  and  use  for  the  determination  of  nitrogen.  The  nitrogen  thus 
obtained  indicates  protein  nitrogen,  and  the  amount  of  pure  protein  may  be  obtained 
by  multiplying  by  6.25. 

Soil,  fertility  and  meteorological  conditions  exert  no  inconsiderable 
influence  on  the  protein  content  of  feeding  stuffs  or  forage  plants.  The 
seeds  of  the  Leguminosae,  oil  cakes,  malt  sprouts,  young  green  forage. 


FEEDING  STUFFS 


especially  clovers,  the  endosperms  of  grains,  industrial  waste  products  of 
animal  and  vegetable  origin  (bran,  brewers'  grains,  meat  meal  and  blood 
meal)  are  all  relatively  rich  in  protein.  On  the  other  hand,  old  or  woody 
green  forage,  the  straw  of  the  various  grains,  root  crops  and  tubers,  the 
interior  portion  of  the  grains  (hence  also  flour)  are  relatively  poor  in 
protein. 

1.    Ferments  and  Vitamines 

In  connection  with  the  proteids  mention  should  also  be  made  of  the 
ferments  and  vitamins.  The  ferments  (enzymes)  possess  the  property 
of  producing  chemical  changes  in  other  compounds  (within  certain  tern- 


Fig.  2.  Determination  of  nitrogen  according 
to  Kjeldahl.  a.  Distillation  flasks  with  bulb 
tube;    b,  condenser. 


Fig.    3.      Apparatus    for    fat    extraction.      o. 
Water  bath;   b,  flask  with    ether;    c,  extraction 
apparatus;  d,  globe  cooler. 


perature  limits)  without  themselves  undergoing  any  appreciable  change. 
They  have  been  demonstrated  to  be  widely  prevalent  in  the  tissues  of 
plants  and  animals.  These  ferments  include  diastase,  proteolytic  fer- 
ments, lipase,  oxydase,  etc.  There  is  little  doubt  that  the  ferments  con- 
tained in  feeding  stuffs  have  certain  functions  in  the  process  of  digestion. 
In  ruminants  they  probably  begin  to  play  a  part  in  predigestion  in  the 
rumen. 


8  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

The  term  vitamin  is  applied  to  nitrogenous  compounds,  essential  to  the 
support  of  life  but  as  yet  little  understood.  Some  of  these  substances  are 
stable  on  heating  and  soluble  in  ether  (A  vitamins)  and  occur  in  the 
yolk  of  eggs,  in  milk,  butter,  kidney  fat  of  the  pig  (but  not  in  ordinary 
lard),  cod-liver  oil,  meat,  portions  of  beef  tallow  with  low  melting  point, 
(hence  oelomargarine),  traces  in  flaxseed  and  grains.  They  are  not 
found  in  the  oil  of  sunflower  seed,  olives,  almonds  or  cottonseed. 

Other  vitamins  are  also  stable  on  heating  and  soluble  in  water  and  alco- 
hol. (B  vitamins).  They  occur  in  yeast,  eggs,  milk,  meat,  vegetables, 
the  germs  of  seeds,  Indian  corn  etc.,  but  are  absent  in  degerminated  pol- 
ished rice. 

When  vitamin-containing  food  is  withheld  from  animals  for  a  certain 
time,  diseases  which  are  designated  by  the  generic  name  of  avitaminoses 
make  their  appearance.  This  group  includes  beriberi,  scorbutus,  pellagra, 
rachitis  (man),  morbus  Barlowi  and  polyneuritis  gallinarum. 

Harmful  effects,  as  a  result  of  deficiency  in  vitamins,  occur  now  and 
then,  but  only  in  certain  species  of  animals.  Thus  rabbits  are  affected 
when  fed  exclusively  on  Indian  corn,  while  pigeons  are  not.  Guinea-pigs 
are  affected  after  exclusive  feeding  on  dried  peas,  while  pigeons  and  rab- 
bits are  not  affected. 

Cooper  and  Funk  demonstrated  that  an  alcoholic  extract  made  from  the 
glumes  or  chaff  of  rice  acts  therapeutically.  The  active  element  in  this 
extract  is  thought  to  be  a  crystalline  substance  (nonphosphorous)  of  the 
pyrimidin  group^,  or  vitamin  Ci^H^gO^Na.  A  few  milligrams  are  said  to 
be  sufficient  to  effect  a  cure.  A  similar  action  is  possessed  by  torulin,  pre- 
pared from  yeast  by  Edie,  Evans,  Moore  and  others,  and  by  lysin,  arginin 
and  tryptophan  prepared  by  Roehmann.  The  latter,  with  other  com- 
pounds, are  present  also  in  the  aleurone  layer  and  the  pericarpium  of  rice. 
The  following  also  have  a  therapeutic  effect:  Rice  chaff,  raw  meat  (the 
latter  loses  its  therapeutic  effect  when  heated  to  120°  C.)  Katjang  nijdjoe 
{Phase olus  radiatus)  is  also  effective  in  this  respect.  Hulshoff  Pol  pre- 
pared an  effective,  slightly  acid,  crystalline  substance,  "X-acid,"  from  the 
latter. 

2.    Nonproteid  Nitrogenous  Compounds 

Non-proteid  nitrogenous  compounds^  occur  as  follows: 

1.     In  the  young  growth  of  plants  (germs,  buds,  young  leaves). 

^CH  — N^ 

iThe  pyrimidin  group  or  metadiazins  are  derived  from  pyrimidin   CH\^  ^-^^ 

2For  each  100  parts  of  nitrogen  there  are  present  nitrogenous  bodies  of  nonproteid  character 
as   follows: 

Very  young  meadow  hay 22    %        Barley    3  % 

Meadow   hay    at   cutting   period 15    %        Indian    corn    5  % 

Overseasoned    hay    7.5%        Peas    and    beans    11  % 

Very    young    red    clover     31.5%        Straw     0  % 

Red  clover  in  bloom   19    %        Beet  diffusate    25  % 

Potatoes 43    %        Molasses    100  % 

Well-manured    field    beets 76.5%        Malt   sprouts    27  % 

Normal    field    beets 57.5%        Potato    starch    factory    wash 31  % 

Wheat      11     %        Lupines     7.5% 

Rye    9    %        Cottonseed    meal    4  % 

Oats     7.5%        Peanut  meal    7  % 


NONPROTEID  NITROGENOUS  COMPOUNDS  9 

2.  In  succulent  parts  of  plants  (roots,  tubers,  pumpkins,  squash). 

3.  In  fermented  feed  (silage)  and  in  feeding  stuffs  decomposed  by 
molds  and  bacteria. 

The  nonproteid  nitrogenous  compounds  include : 

1.  Amido  compounds  which  occur  in  plants,  in  part  as  proteids  in 
process  of  formation,  in  part  as  cleavage  products  of  reserve  proteids. 
These  include:  Asparagin  (in  young  green  forage,  malt  sprouts;  in  pota- 
toes half  of  the  nitrogenous  matter  consists  of  asparagin),  glutamin  (in 
beets,  beet  leaves,  spurry  [Spurgula  arvensis']),  leucin,  tyrosin  and  xan- 
thin  (in  various  plant  juices),  hypoxanthin  (in  bran,  potato  juice,  mustard 
seed),  vernin  (in  vetches,  red  clover  leaves),  guanin  (in  young  shoots), 
guanidin  (in  freshly  germinated  vetches),  allantoin  (in  the  leaves  of 
trees),  and  finally  adenin,  caffein,  theobromin  (in  tea,  coffee,  cocoa). 

The  amid  compounds  are  all  readily  soluble  and  digestible.  In  rations 
rich  in  carbohydrates  and  crude  fiber  and  very  deficient  in  proteids  (ratio 
of  1  to  19  or  20)  fed  to  ruminants,  they  (especially  asparagin)  conserve 
the  proteids  and  to  a  certain  extent  take  their  place  (Kellner,  Zuntz,  etc.). 
This  action  or  property  of  the  amid  compounds  is  of  limited  practical  im- 
portance, since  rations  of  this  character  would  be  fed  to  domestic  animals 
only  in  years  of  extreme  famine.  Their  effect  is  not  noticeable  in  ratios  of 
1  to  IS.  In  the  usual  feeding  operations  the  amids  are  oxidized  directly 
into  carbonic  acid  and  water.  The  slight  amount  of  heat  produced  in  this 
process  is  of  little  significance  even  in  mere  subsistence  rations. 

Special  methods  for  the  determination  of  amids  do  not  exist.  By  tacit  consent, 
the  difference  between  pure  and  crude  protein  is  assumed  to  represent  amid  com- 
pounds. 

2.  The  nitrogenous  glycosids  (amygdalin  in  vetch  seed,  linamarin  in 
flax  seed  and  linseed  cake,  solanin  and  solanidin  in  the  sprouts,  seeds  and 
tops  of  potatoes,  sinigrin  and  sinalbin  in  rape  and  mustard  seed)  in  large 
doses  act  as  irritants  and  even  as  poisons  (mustard  seed).  In  very  small 
doses  they  act  as  stimulants. 

3.  The  organic  bases  (alkaloids)  such  as  betain  (mangolds,  vetch 
seeds,  barley  and  wheat  sprouts,  molasses,  cottonseed  meal),  cirsin  (this- 
tles), choHn  (vetches,  peas,  peanuts,  sesame  and  cottonseed,  cocoanut, 
palm  seeds,  etc.),  lupin  alkaloids  (lupines),  occurring  in  minimal  quanti- 
ties as  they  do,  probably  act  as  slight  stimulants  to  digestion,  or  as  appe- 
tizers. In  larger  doses  (sometimes  in  lupines  and  certain  poisonous  plants 
like  hemlock,  colchicum,  hellebore,  nightshade,  stramonium  henbane,  acon- 
ite, etc.)  they  act  as  active  poison.  ChoHn,  which  is  a  constituent  of  many 
tonic  foods,  may,  through  the  agency  of  microorganisms,  be  converted 
into  neurin,  which  is  very  poisonous.  This  fact  may  possibly  explain  the 
toxic  action  of  certain  feeding  stuffs,  such  as  cotton  seed  cake  and  meal, 
which  manifests  itself  under  certain  conditions. 

4.  Salts  of  ammonia  and  nitric  acid.  Among  the  feeding  stuffs  in  com- 
mon use  nitrates  in  any  quantity  are  found  in  beets  only  (in  exceptional 


10  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS  ^       , 

cases  to  the  extent  of  44  per  cent  of  the  total  nitrogen  content).  The  salts 
of  ammonia  occur  in  fermented  feeding  stuffs  (silage  and  so-called  brown 
hay).  Traces  are  also  found  in  natural  feeding  stuffs.  The  physiological 
action  of  these  salts  in  small  quantities  probably  resembles  that  of  the 
amids.  (Zuntz,  Morgen,  Kellner).  Large  quantities  are  diuretic  and 
even  toxic  (nitrates). 

IV.    The  Fats 

The  fats,  with  the  carbohydrates,  constitute  the  group  of  nitrogen-free 
organic  substances. 

The  fats  are  esters  of  glycerin  €3115(011)3,  and  of  several  fatty  acids, 
among  which  palmatin  CjeHgoOg,  stearin  CigHggOa,  and  oleic  acid  Cjg 
H34O2  are  the  most  common.  When  the  first  two  acids  named  are  in  ex- 
cess the  fat  is  firm  (tallow);  when  oleic  acid  is  in  excess  the  fat  is  fluid 
(oils).  Free  fatty  acids  make  their  appearance  in  the  seeds  of  oil-produc- 
ing plants,  harvested  before  maturity,  or  in  sprouted  seeds  of  the  latter, 
as  well  as  in  feeding  stuffs  rich  in  fat  and  stored  in  damp  places  (oil  cake, 
etc.),  imparting  a  sour  odor  and  an  acid  taste.  Further  decomposition 
produces  rancidity. 

The  amount  of  fat  in  vegetable  feeding  stuffs,  as  compared  with  other 
carbohydrates  is  comparatively  small.  Comparatively  few  seeds  are  rich 
in  fat  (oil-producing  seeds,  up  to  50  per  cent;  oats  and  corn,  6  to  7  per 
cent ;  wheat  and  rye  bran,  3  to  4  per  cent,  some  legumes ;  (peas,  3  per  cent ; 
lupines,  6  to  7  per  cent)  ;  oil  cakes  had  8  to  12  per  cent ;  meat  meal,  10  to  15 
per  cent.  Green  fodder  and  roughage  and  all  tuber  and  root  crops  are  de- 
cidedly poor  in  fat  content.  In  the  animal  body,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
fats  are  far  in  excess  of  the  other  nitrogen-free  compounds  (carbohy- 
drates). 

The  fat  content  is  usually  ascertained  by  extracting  it  from  the  feeding  stuff  with 
ether  or  petroleum  ether,  evaporating  the  ether  and  weighing  the  residue,  (Fig,  3). 

The  crude  fat  thus  obtained  contains  in  admixture  other  ether-soluble 
substances  like  cholesterins,  lecithins,  vegetable  wax,  chlorophyl,  ethereal 
oils,  resins,  etc.,  which  are  occasionally  present  in  considerable  quantity. 
Thus  the  crude  fat  of  the  rough  forages  contain  no  less  than  60  per  cent 
of  these  ether-soluble  nonfatty  substances. 

Among  the  ether-soluble  nonfatty  substances  the  phosphorus-containing 
lecithins  are  valuable  nutritive  substances.  The  cholesterins  are  less  valu- 
able, and  the  resins  probably  possess  no  value  at  all.  The  lecithin  con- 
tent of  the  chemical  dry  matter  of  vetches  amounts  to  1.1  per  cent;  peas, 
1  per  cent ;  hulled  yellow  lupines,  2,2  per  cent ;  wheat,  0.4  per  cent ;  bar- 
ley, 0.5  per  cent;  Indian  corn,  0.25  per  cent;  flaxseed,  0.7  per  cent;  hemp- 
seed,  0.85  per  cent ;  peanut  cake,  0.2  to  0.4  per  cent ;  sesame  cake,  0.5  per 
cent ;  linseed  cake,  0.44  per  cent ;  cocoanut  cake,  0.3  per  cent ;  cottonseed 
cake,  0.5  per  cent.  Most  ethereal  oils  possess  bactericidal  properties. 
Thus  the  oil  of  mustard  checks  the  growth  of  bacteria  in  solutions  of  1 
to  3,000.    The  ethereal  oils  are  widely  prevalent  in  the  seeds  of  Cruciferae, 


FATS,  CARBOHYDRATES,  CRUDE  FIBER  11 

especially  of  rape,  turnips  and  mustard,  also  in  the  Umbelliferse  (cara- 
way, fennel,  anise,  coriander),  in  juniper  berries  and  in  the  following: 
Common  milfoil  or  yarrow,  parsnip,  garden  sage,  artemisia  or  mugwort, 
calamus,  gill-over-the-ground,  cow  parsnip,  tansy  (suitable  for  sheep 
only),  etc. 

V.    The  Carbohydrates 

The  carbohydrates  are  combinations  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
in  which  the  last  two  elements  are  present  in  the  proportion  of  2  to  1,  as 
in  water,  HgO.  , 

The  carbohydrates  with  which  we  are  concerned  here  usually  contain  6  or  a  mul- 
tiple of  6  carbon  atoms  (hexones),  although  a  few  contain  only  five  atoms  of  carbon 
(pentones). 

From  a  chemical  standpoint  the  hexones  are  divided  into: 

1.  Monosaccharids  (grape-sugar  group)  C6H12O6,  represented  mainly  by  grape 
sugar  (glycose  or  dextrose)  ;  fruit  sugar  (fructose  or  levulose),  and  galactose. 

2.  EHsaccharids,  C12H22O11  (cane-sugar  group)  :  Cane  sugar  (saccharose),  milk 
sugar   (lactose),  malt  sugar    (maltose),  and  raflfinose. 

3.  Polysaccharids  (CeHioOs)  (cellulose  or  starch  group)  :  Cellulose,  starch, 
dextrin,  glycogen,  inulin,  gum,  vegetable  mucilage,  etc. 

This  division,  however,  is  not  strictly  followed  in  the  study  of  practical 
feeding.  According  to  their  digestibility  we  distinguish  merely  between 
two  groups — crude  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract. 

1.    Crude  Fiber 

The  term  "crude  fiber"  is  applied  to  all  organic  nitrogen-free  constit- 
uents of  feeding  stuffs  which  remain  undissolved  after  heating  the  sub- 
stance in  question  in  a  1.25  per  cent  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  and  1.25 
per  cent  solution  of  caustic  potash  for  one-half  hour  and  extracting  with 
water,  alcohol  and  ether  (Henneberg  and  Weender  method).  It  was 
formerly  believed  that  the  entire  cell  structure  (cellulose  together  with  all 
ligniform  substances)  was  included  in  the  residue.  This  supposition  was 
not,  however,  founded  on  fact.  Thus,  only  30  per  cent  of  the  organic 
nitrogen-free  cell-wall  substance  of  wheat  bran  remains  undissolved  after 
this  treatment,  and  hulled  lupine  seed  leaves  only  6  per  cent  of  crude  fiber. 
The  rest  is  dissolved  and  is  estimated  as  nitrogen-free  extract. 

Crude  fiber  obtained  as  above,  contains — 

a.  Cellulose  (CeHio05)xl,  which  is  admixed  (incrustated)  and  pos- 
sibly, in  part,  chemically  combined  with  lignin  (woody  substance), 
suberin  (corky  substance),  cutin,  inorganic  salts  (especially  silicic  acid), 
as  well  as  with  nitrogen-containing  substances.  It  is  present  in  the  woody 
parts  of  plants  and  in  all  rough  forage  (straw,  hay,  etc.). 

b.  Pentosanes.  Like  cellulose,  with  which  they  are  frequently  ad- 
mixed, the  pentosanes  are  incrustated  with  other  substances.  Chemically 
the  pentosanes  (C5H804'lx  are  regarded  as  anhydrids  of  the  pentones,  as, 
for  example,  xylose  and  arabinose  (C5H10O5),  just  as  cellulose, 
(C6Hio05)x,  is  an  anhydrid-like  combination  of  a  hexone  (e.  g.,  grape 
sugar  CgHisOe).     Externally  the  pentosanes  resemble  cellulose,  but  they 


12  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

are  easily  differentiated  from  the  latter  by  a  number  of  reactions.  The 
amount  of  pentosanes  in  crude  fiber  is  on  the  average  from  5  to  10  per 
cent,  in  meadow  hay  5.2  per  cent,  rye  straw  11.0  per  cent,  clover  hay  and 
lupine  straw  6.2  per  cent. 

The  total  crude  fiber  content  of  straw  is  from  20  to  55  per  cent,  meadow 
hay  and  young  forage  plants  16  to  40  per  cent,  grains  0.5  to  17  per  cent, 
root  crops  slightly  above  1  per  cent. 

The  function  of  crude  fiber  may  be  regarded  primarily  as  that  of  non- 
nutrient  ballast,  and  in  the  calculation  of  rations  crude  fiber  is  recognized 
as  an  important  part  of  the  dry  matter.  It  is  important  because  it  imparts 
volume  and  texture  to  the  feeding  stuff  and  thus  serves  to  fill  the  volumi- 
nous spaces  of  the  digestive  canal.  It  also  exerts  a  mechanical  effect  on 
the  mucous  membranes  of  the  digestive  canal  and,  in  a  reflex  manner, 
excites  the  secretion  of  the  digestive  fluids  and  the  movements  of  the 
bowels.  However,  care  must  be  observed  in  the  use  of  feeding  stuffs  rich 
in  crude  fiber,  because  on  the  one  hand  they  are  deficient  in  nutrient  sub- 
stances and  on  the  other  hand  require  undue  effort  in  mastication  and 
digestion. 

As  far  as  the  nutrient  value  or  nutrient  action  of  crude  fiber  is  con- 
cerned, experiments  have  shown  that  the  actual  digestion  of  57  per  cent 
of  the  crude  fiber  results  in  neither  gain  nor  loss  to  the  animal.  If  less 
than  57  per  cent  is  digested,  there  is  an  actual  loss  at  the  expense  of  the 
other  nutrients.  This  loss  is  due  to  undue  effort  on  the  part  of  the  organs 
of  digestion  (mastication  muscular  effort  in  moving  the  contents  of  the 
intestinal  canal,  secretion  of  the  necessary  digestive  fluids,  etc.).  On  the 
other  hand,  if  an  excess  over  57  per  cent  of  the  raw  fiber  administered  is 
digested,  there  is  a  proportionate  gain,  the  value  of  the  excess  digested 
being  the  same  as  that  of  starch,  in  equal  amount, 
2.    Nitrogen-Free  Extracts 

The  group  of  nitrogen-free  extracts  includes  all  nitrogen-free  organic 
substances  which  are  not  classified  with  the  crude  fat  nor  crude  fiber. 
They  consist,  therefore,  of  those  nitrogen-free  substances  which  are  dis- 
solved in  the  determination  of  the  crude  fiber.  Their  amount  is  deter- 
mined mathematically  by  deducting  or  substracting  the  total  percentage 
of  water,  crude  protein,  crude  fiber,  crude  fat  and  mineral  matter  from 
100.    This  gives  the  percentage  of  nitrogen-free  extract. 

The  digestibility  of  nitrogen-free  extract  varies  with  the  species  of  ani- 
mal and  according  to  the  plant  or  feeding  stuff  from  which  it  is  obtained, 
as  indicated  in  the  following  table : 
Nitrogen-free  Ruminants  Horses  Swine 

Extract   In —  Digest —  Digest—  Digest- 

Percent  Percent  Percent 

Green  forage,  hay  43—85  40—77  57—71 

Straw,  chaff   28—73  17—30 

Grains   39—95  51—98  80—99 

Roots  and  tubers  83—99  94—99  96—99 

Bran,  etc 70—88  64  75—78 

Oil  cake   46—99  80—90 


NITROGEN  FREE  EXTRACTS  13 

The  nitrogen-free  extracts  include : 

(a)  The  carbohydrates,  not  including  crude  fiber  but  only  the  readily 
digestible  carbohydrates.  They  are  by  far  the  most  important  nitrogen- 
free  extractives.  The  other  groups  may  in  this  respect  be  practically 
ignored.  Among  the  carbohydrates  should  be  mentioned  starch,  non- 
woody  cellulose  and  pentosanes,  dextrin,  grape  sugar,  fruit  sugar,  cane 
sugar,  milk  sugar,  malt  sugar,  etc. 

(b)  Several  organic  acids, 

(c)  Nitrogen-free  glycosids. 

(d)  Bitter  principles. 

Nitrogen-free  extracts  play  a  most  important  role  in  the  nutrition  of 
domestic  animals.  They  are  the  chief  nutrient  in  vegetable  feeding  stuffs. 
They  constitute  the  principal  and  the  cheapest  source  of  animal  heat, 
mechanical  energy  and  fat  formation. 

a.    Carbohydrates 

Starch  [(C6Hio05)x]  is  present  in  practically  all  vegetables  feeding 
stuffs.  The  various  grains  are  especially  rich  in  this  nutrient  (55  to  75 
per  cent),  many  Leguminous  seeds  (45  to  50  per  cent)  and  potatoes  (12 
to  25  per  cent;  dry,  75  per  cent).  The  starch  grains  themselves  have 
different  forms  and  structures  according  to  their  origin.  They  take  a  blue 
stain  with  iodin. 

The  structure  of  the  starch  grains  consists  of  easily  digestible  granulose 
(starch  proper)  and  starch  cellulose.  Starch  is  characterized  by  its  easy 
and  perfect  digestibility.  It  is  used  as  the  standard  of  feed  value  in  feed- 
ing stuffs. 

Cellulose  (C6Hio05)x  is  in  part  very  easily  digested;  thus,  the  cellu- 
lose of  paper  and  lint,  70  to  80  per  cent ;  of  hay,  60  to  70  per  cent ;  of 
straw  and  poplar  wood,  40  to  50  per  cent ;  pine  wood,  30  to  40  per  cent. 
The  ability  to  digest  cellulose  varies  with  the  species,  being  greatest  in 
the  ox  (30-70  per  cent),  followed  by  the  sheep  (50  per  cent),  horse  (30- 
40  per  cent),  and  pig  (20-50  per  cent).  In  man  and  in  the  dog  it  is  prac- 
tically nil.  The  more  nutritious  any  particular  feed  happens  to  be,  the  less 
cellulose  is  digested  of  that  particular  feeding  stuff. 

Dextrins  iCj^tii2oOio)3>  are  found  in  the  juices  of  all  young  plants,  in 
many  seeds,  in  distillery  slops  and  in  feedstuff s  rich  in  starch  (potatoes, 
grains).  The  dextrins  are  primary  starches  and  reappear  in  the  digestion 
of  starch  as  inversion  products.  Iodin  does  not  stain  them  a  blue  color 
like  the  starches.  Erythrodextrin  is  stained  red  with  iodin.  Fehling's 
solution  (metallic  copper  salts  in  alkaline  solution)  is  not  reduced  by  their 
addition  (colored  red). 

Grape  sugar  (CeHigOe)  is  only  rarely  foimd  in  feeding  stuffs.  Fruit 
sugar  (iCeHigOe)  is  more  widely  prevalent,  found  in  sweet  plant  juices, 
green  rye,  etc.  Grape  sugar  (dextrose,  glucose)  occurs  in  feeding  stuffs 
as  primary  cane  sugar  and  primary  starch,  and  during  the  digestion  of  the 


14  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

latter  reappears  as  a  cleavage  product.  Not  affected  by  iodin.  Reduces 
Fehling's  solution  in  the  presence  of  heat  (red  precipitate). 

Cane  sugar  (C12H22O11)  occurs  in  quantity  in  sugar  cane  and  sugar 
beets.  Many  other  plants  contain  small  quantities  (green  rye,  sweet  corn, 
sweet  millet,  meadow  grasses,  vetches,  potato  tops  and  immature  pota- 
toes). Also  in  the  grains  and  other  seeds,  in  seed  hulls  and  in  sweet 
fruits.  When  broken  down  in  the  process  of  digestion  it  forms  grape 
sugar  and  fruit  sugar. 

Milk  sugar  (C12H22O11)  (lactose)  under  the  influence  of  enzymes  (dia- 
stase) and  the  absorption  of  water  is  spMt  up  into  galactose  and  glycose. 
Occurs  in  milk  but  not  in  vegetable  feeding  stuffs.  The  latter,  however, 
are  often  rich  in  galactose-producing  substances  (galactan,  paragalactan, 
seminin,  lactorin).  Thus  sugar  beets  contain  galactan;  beans,  peas, 
vetches,  palm  cake,  cocoanut  cake  contain  paragalactan  and  seminin. 
Vegetable  substances  containing  galactose  appear  in  plants  as  mucilages, 
pectin  substances  and  gums.  According  to  Muntz  they  are  always  present 
in  these  substances  in  sufficient  quantity  to  serve  as  raw  material  for  the 
production  of  milk  sugar. 

The  following  carbohydrates  have  also  been  demonstrated  in  plants: 
Malt  sugar  [(C12H22O11)  malt]  ;  raffinose  (CisHggOie)  in  cotton  seed  and 
sugar  beets;  inulin(a  form  of  starch  which,  however,  does  not  stain  blue 
with  fuchsin)  in  fleshy  tubers  and  roots — topinambur  (artichoke),  arabin 
(a  vegetable  gum)  and  sinistrin  (grain  of  barley)  and  vegetable  mucilages 
(in  various  seeds  and  tubers). 

Pectin  substances  are  a  mixture  of  pentoses  (beets,  etc.,  fleshy  fruits). 

The  pentosanes  occur  as  wood  gum  (xylan),  are  widely  prevalent  and 
frequently  in  great  abundance  (brewers  grains  contain  29  per  cent,  slops 
from  distilled  rye  16  per  cent,  straw  25  per  cent,  meadow  hay  18  per  cent, 
clover  hay  10  per  cent,  corn  cobs  34  per  cent,  of  the  dry  matter).  Cattle 
digest  62  per  cent  of  the  pentosanes,  sheep  55,  horses  40,  swine  45  and 
poultry  25  per  cent.  The  digestibility  of  the  pentosanes  diminishes  as 
the  starch  content  of  the  food  increases. 

b.    Organic  Acids 

Lactic  acid  (CsHgOg)  occurs  in  germinating  seeds,  distillery  slops  and 
particularly  in  ensilaged  or  otherwise  fermented  vegetable  feeding  stuffs, 
in  quantities  exceeding  3  per  cent.  In  moderate  quantities  lactic  acid  aids 
digestion  and  is  said  to  favor  milk  secretion  (Pott).  When  fed  in 
large  amounts,  injurious  effects  may  follow,  especially  if  the  fermentative 
processes  were  not  properly  regulated  or  controlled  and  other  acids  (ace- 
tic, propionic,  valerianic,  capronic)  are  present. 

These  latter  are  very  apt  to  cause  digestive  disturbances,  influence  milk 
secretion  and  impart  a  bitter  taste  to  the  milk,  which  latter  is  ascribed  to 
the  fact  that  fermentative  micro-organisms  are  discharged  from  the  alia- 
mentary  canal  and  through  carelessness  or  other  causes  contaminate  the 


ORGANIC  ACIDS  IS 

milk  after  it  is  drawn  from  the  udder,  multiply  therein,  cause  chemical 
changes  and  affect  the  taste  of  the  milk. 

Oxalic  acid  (CoHoOJ  is  found  in  the  juices  of  many  plants  either  as 
free  acid  or  combined  with  alkalies  or  lime  (oxalis,  rumex,  beet  leaves 
2-10  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter)  and  in  many  spoiled  feeding  stuffs.  Oc- 
casionally taken  in  small  quantities  it  stimulates  the  appetite ;  larger  quan- 
tities are  laxative,  and  toxic  doses  produce  acute  gastrointestinal  inflam- 
mation. After  continued  consumption  of  moderate  amounts  kidney,  heart 
and  bone  affections  may  result.  The  latter  are  due  to  the  circumstance 
that  the  oxalic  acid  precipitates  the  lime  salts  in  the  food  and  prevents 
their  absorption.  The  result  is  lime  starvation  under  which  the  bones 
suffer  most  and  become  subject  to  various  forms  of  disease  (softening, 
brittleness,  etc.).  The  effect  of  the  oxalic  acid  depends  to  a  great  extent 
upon  the  form  in  which  it  is  taken  into  the  body.  While  sodium  oxalate, 
readily  soluble,  produces  injurious  effects  even  when  taken  in  small  quan- 
tities, oxalate  of  lime,  insoluble  in  water,  may  be  taken  in  large  amounts 
with  hardly  any  harmful  results  whatever.  The  injurious  effects  of  con- 
tinued feeding  of  substances  rich  in  oxalic  acid  may  to  a  great  extent  be 
avoided  by  the  simultaneous  administration  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Swine 
and  rabbits  are  much  more  susceptible  to  the  effects  of  oxalates  in  feed- 
stuffs  than  ruminants.  In  the  latter  the  oxalic  acid  is  destroyed  by  the 
fermentative  processes  that  occur  in  the  paunch.  The  oxalic  acid  ab- 
sorbed into  the  system  is  excreted  with  the  urine,  unchanged. 

Acetic  acid  is  a  constituent  of  many  plant  juices.  It  occurs  also,  in 
conjunction  with  butyric  and  lactic  acids,  etc.,  in  ensilaged  and  fermented 
feeding  stuffs  (distillery  slops  in  poorly  conducted  distilleries).  Mini- 
mum quantities  of  acetic  acid  promote  the  digestive  processes;  larger 
amounts  are  injurious,  retarding  digestion  and  destroying  the  red  blood 
corpuscles. 

Formic  acid  occurs  principally  in  dried  pine  needles  and  in  nettles 
(which  latter  are  a  popular  remedy  for  digestive  disorders  of  ruminants). 

Butyric  acid  occurs  primarily  in  poorly  fermented  feeding  stuffs,  to 
which  it  imparts  a  disagreeable  odor  and  a  sharp  or  biting  taste.  In 
large  quantities  butyric  acid  is  injurious. 

Malic,  tartaric  and  citric  acids  occur  in  the  juices  of  many  so-called  acid 
fruits,  in  the  refuse  of  the  wine  and  cider  presses  and  in  various  growing 
plants.  Citric  acid  also  occurs  in  milk,  in  the  seeds  of  Leguminosse  and 
in  the  common  beet.  All  of  these  acids  aid  the  digestive  processes;  they 
promote  the  digestion  of  albumin,  and  in  the  presence  of  sugar  influence 
the  solubility  and  absorption  of  certain  phosphates  and  salts  of  the  alka- 
line earths  which  are  insoluble  in  their  absence.  Their  stimulating  and 
refreshing  effect  is  well  known. 

Tannic  acid  is  found  in  limited  quantities  in  many  plants.  Feeds  rich 
in  tannic  acid  (kidney  vetch,  other  species  of  vetch,  the  leaves  of  oaks 
and  willows,  acorns)  retard  the  digestion  of  albumins,  affect  the  secre- 
tion of  milk  and  cause  constipation. 


16  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

c.    Nitrogen-Free  Glycosids 

Prominent  among  the  nitrogen- free  glycosids  is  the  poisonous  principle 
of  the  seeds  of  corncockle,  githagin.  Thistles  and  nettles  contain  very 
small  quantities  of  glucosids.  The  latter  are  the  basis  of  the  tonic  effects 
of  these  plants  on  digestion  and  milk  secretion.  Hence  the  custom  of 
feeding  them  to  horses  in  the  spring  of  the  year. 

d.    Bitter  Principles 

Absinthin,  derived  from  wormwood  (Artimesia  absinthium),  gentiopi- 
crin,  derived  from  gentian  root,  and  angelicin,  derived  from  the  carrot. 
In  small  quantities  they  stimulate  the  appetite  and  promote  the  secretion 
of  gastric  juice  and  the  muscular  movements  of  the  stomach. 

B.     The  Conservation  and  Preparation  of  Feeding  Stuffs 

I.    Conservation 

The  varied  methods  of  feeding  stuff  conservation  may  be  loosely 
summed  up  under  the  following  heads : 

1.  Storage  (in  cellars  or  pits). 

2.  Curing  or  drying. 

3.  Fermentation. 

The  nature  of  the  feeding  stuff,  economic  conditions,  weather  and  cli- 
matic conditions,  determine  the  method  of  conservation. 

1.   Storage 

The  object  of  storage  in  cellars  or  in  mounds  of  earth  or  pits  (pitting) 
is  to  protect  feeding  stuffs  from  external  influences  and  keep  them  in  a 
fresh  and  live  state.  This  method  of  conservation  is  adapted  for  root 
crops^,  potatoes,  beets,  carrots,  turnips,  etc.,  during  the  cold  season  only. 

Losses  from  storage. — The  root  crops  are  living  feeding  stuffs.  They 
manifest  a  certain  amount  of  vital  activity  (respiration — take  in  oxygen 
and  give  off  carbon  dioxide),  and  thus  consume  a  certain  amount  of  food. 
This  loss  affects  mainly  the  carbohydrates.  Starch  and  cane  sugar, 
through  processes  of  fermentation,  are  spHt  up  into  grape  sugar,  and  the 
latter  is  oxidized  in  the  act  of  respiration.  The  degree  of  loss,  in  potatoes, 
depends  on  variety,  temperature  and  moisture  conditions.  According  to 
Baessler,  De  Wet  variety  lost  2.5  per  cent  during  five  months'  storage, 
and  the  "Up  to  Date"  variety  16.3  per  cent  under  the  same  conditions.  In 
the  experiments  of  Von  Feilitzen,  among  46  varieties  of  potatoes  tested, 
the  loss  ranged  between  4  and  25  per  cent.  According  to  Nobbe,  six 
months'  storage  under  damp  and  warm  conditions  resulted  in  a  loss  of 
47  per  cent,  while  under  cool  and  dry  conditions  the  loss  was  only  12  per 
cent.  Sugar  beets  when  stored  in  a  cool  place  suffer  a  daily  loss  of  0.01 
to  0.02  per  cent  of  the  sugar  content.    In  beets  the  loss  during  the  whole 

3The  hardy  artichoke  is  usually  left  in  the  ground  over  winter  and  dug  up  and  fed  fresh  in 
the  spring  of  the  year. 


CONSERVATION  AND  PREPARATION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS       17 

winter  storage  season  amounts  to  10  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter  (prin- 
cipally digestible  carbohydrates). 

Germination  or  sprouting  entail  considerably  greater  losses.  Accord- 
ing to  Kramer  the  loss  in  sprouting  potatoes  with  sprouts  1  to  2  cm  long 
amounts  to  3  per  cent  of  the  starch;  2  to  3  cm.,  5  per  cent;  3  to  4  cm., 
10  per  cent. 

Prevention  of  loss. — To  avoid  deterioration  and  consequent  deprecia- 
tion in  value,  root  crops  and  tubers  should  be  stored  in  a  cool  place.  In 
this  respect  the  external  temperature  is  of  minor  importance,  because  root 
crops  are  usually  harvested  in  the  cooler  season  of  the  year  (this  applies 
more  particularly  to  the  climate  of  Northern  Europe  than  to  that  of  the 
Northern  and  Middle  United  States).  It  is  much  more  important  to  con- 
sider the  heat  generated  by  the  processes  of  respiration  and  of  decomposi- 
tion and  decay.  Since  moisture  favors  the  latter,  as  well  as  freezing,  root 
crops  should  be  buried,  or  stored  in  cellars,  in  as  dry  condition  and  sound 
as  possible. 

On  the  other  hand,  these  living  feeding  stuffs  must  be  protected  from 
the  action  of  frost.  Freezing  temperatures  destroy  the  life  of  these  plants, 
cause  them  to  rot  after  thawing,  and  by  contact  with  healthy  plants  the 
infection  is  spread. 

Potatoes  freeze  at  a  temperature  of  approximately  26°  F.,  beets  at  about 
30°  F. 

Before  all  vitality  is  destroyed  in  potatoes  by  freezing,  they  "turn 
sweet,"  which  is  caused  by  the  conversion  of  starch  into  sugar.  The  sweet 
taste  can  be  detected  when  the  amount  of  sugar  reaches  0.8  per  cent. 
When  the  amount  of  sugar  reaches  2  per  cent  the  potatoes  are  no  longer 
considered  fit  for  food.  Sugar  formation  begins  at  a  temperature  of  about 
43°  F.,  doubles  in  rapidity  at  37°  F.,  and  at  32°  F.  is  six  times  as  inten- 
sive as  at  43°  F.  (Appel). 

At  32°  F.,  0.8  per  cent  of  sugar  is  formed  in  3  weeks,  2  per  cent  in  4 
weeks  and  3  per  cent  in  8  weeks  (Mueller-Thurgau). 

The  "sweetening  of  potatoes"  is  due  to  the  conversion  of  the  starch 
into  sugar  by  the  continued  action  of  the  ferments  (enzymes)  and  pre- 
vention of  the  further  decomposition  or  splitting  up  of  the  sugar  by  the 
reduced  or  inhibited  respiration  due  to  low  temperature.  As  the  tempera- 
ture rises  (50°  F.)  respiration  is  resumed  or  increased  and  the  excess  of 
sugar  disappears  (in  the  course  of  8  to  11  days  at  68°  F.). 

Food  potatoes  and  potatoes  intended  for  the  manufacture  of  starch 
should  never  be  exposed  (except  very  temporarily)  to  temperatures  be- 
low 40°  F. 

A  portion  of  all  root  crops  is  spoiled  by  disease  (Phytophthora)  during 
storage,  and  by  decomposition,  which  also  affects  their  food  value  and 
wholesomeness.  Losses  due  to  these  causes  under  reasonably  favorable 
conditions  amount  to  8  per  cent  in  the  course  of  four  or  five  months. 
When  storing  potatoes  in  the  ground  (pits)  care  should  be  observed  in 


18 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


the  selection  of  a  suitable  place,  easily  accessible,  protected  from  prevail- 
ing winds,  dry  subsoil  and  cover  soil  not  too  light. 

Methods  of  storing  in  pits  vary  in  different  localities.  Fig.  4,  repre- 
senting the  method  of  Appel,  is  offered  merely  as  one  of  many  possible 
methods. 

The  bottom  of  the  pit  should  be  not  more  than  about  6  inches  below  the 
level  of  the  surrounding  ground,  except  in  very  cold  climates,  where  it 
may  be  sunk  as  low  as  2  feet.  Deep  pits  may  have  a  diameter  of  20  to  30 
inches  at  the  base,  shallow  pits  40  to  60  inches,  and  where  the  base  is  on 
a  level  with  the  ground  it  may  be  made  as  wide  as  6  to  8  feet.  The  length 
of  the  pit  is  a  matter  of  taste  or  convenience. 

6  inches  earth 

6  inches  straw  or  potato  tops, 
chaff  or  similar  material. 

4  inches  earth 

6  inches  straw 
Gable  flue 

nches  straw 


Base  of  pit  60  inches 
Fig.  4.     Cross  section  of  potato  pit. 


Shallow  pits  need  proportionately  more  top  or  cover  protection  than 
deeper  ones.  It  is  a  bad  practice  to  store  potatoes  in  excessively  large 
piles  or  bins  (violent  sweating  or  curing  process). 

The  covering  should  consist  of  a  4  to  6  inch  layer  of  stiff  straw  (in 
Northern  Germany  the  twigs  of  juniper  trees  are  frequently  used  for  this 
purpose)  applied  directly  to  the  potatoes  and  this  covered  with  a  layer  of 
earth  about  18  inches  thick.  The  use  of  potato  tops  in  lieu  of  straw  for 
covering  the  potatoes  is  objectionable  on  account  of  the  danger  of  infec- 
tion with  potato  rot  (Phytoplithora).  Where  the  base  of  the  storage 
cavity  is  on  a  level  with  the  ground  it  is  advisable  to  provide  additional 
protection  by  dividing  the  earth  layer  and  inserting  a  second  layer  of 
straw,  chaff,  or  similar  material.  Potato  tops  would  not  be  objectionable 
in  this  layer. 

Ventilation  is  best  provided  by  means  of  a  gable  flue,  provided  by  in- 
serting a  cylindrical  pole,  or  half  round,  when  placing  the  first  layer  of 
straw,  and  withdrawing  the  same  after  completion  of  the  mound.  (See 
Fig.  4.) 


CONSERVATION  AND  PREPARATION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS       19 

With  the  approach  of  warm  weather  in  the  spring,  when  the  tempera- 
ture in  the  pit  reaches  59°  F.,  the  covering  of  the  pit  must  be  removed  to 
prevent  decomposition  of  the  potatoes. 

For  further  information  see  Albert,  Konservierung  der  Futterpflanzen 
(ThaerbibUothek),  and  publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

2.    Curing  or  Drying 

Feeding  stuffs  are  cured  or  dried  in  order  to  preserve  them  throughout 
all  the  seasons  of  the  year  without  loss  of  feeding  value  or  palatability. 

Conservation  by  dry  curing  is  practiced  chiefly  with  the  forage  plants, 
grasses,  etc.,  but  is  also  applicable  to  potatoes,  brewers'  grains,  distillery 
slops,  beet  pulp,  etc.  While  the  curing  of  hay  and  other  forage  plants  is 
accomplished  by  the  aid  of  natural  means  (sun,  air  and  wind),  the  other 
classes  of  feeding  stuffs  mentioned  are  subjected  to  artificial  processes  of 
desiccation. 

a.   The  Preparation  of  Hay 

In  the  preparation  of  hay  the  green  plants  of  field  and  forest  (trees, 
grasses  and  herbs)  should  be  cured  with  a  view  to  preventing  every  pos- 
sible loss  during  the  process. 

The  preparation  or  "making"  of  hay  consists  usually  of  the  simple  pro- 
cedure of  exposing  the  green  forage  after  it  has  been  cut,  to  the  action 
of  the  sun's  rays  and  the  circulating  air,  until  the  coarse  stems  lose  their 
elasticity  and  break  when  bent.  In  this  condition  the  dried  vegetation 
has  a  water  content  of  13  to  16  per  cent.  The  usual  custom  is  to  expose 
the  mowed  grass  to  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays  and  supplement  this  by 
one  or  more  teddings  to  expedite  drying.  Toward  evening  it  is  collected 
into  small  cocks  and  on  the  following  morning  spread  out  again,  and  so 
on  until  the  drying  process  is  completed.  This  is  the  customary  proced- 
ure, but  is  practicable  only  under  favorable  weather  conditions.  This 
method  of  making  hay  is  referred  to  as  "sun  curing,"  as  distinguished 
from  "air  curing"  in  which  the  drying  process  is  accomplished  by  cur- 
rents of  air.  The  plants  or  grasses  are  gathered  into  sheaves,  either  im- 
mediately after  being  cut  or  after  having  been  exposed  to  the  air  or  sun 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  and  set  up  in  various  forms  of  shocks  or 
cocks,  or  supported  on  specially  constructed  racks,  poles  with  cross  bars, 
trusses,  etc.  (Figs  5  and  6).  The  advantage  of  these  various  devices 
consists  in  keeping  the  forage  off  of  the  wet  ground,  an  indispensable 
condition  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Europe  and  some  of  the  South- 
em  States  where  wet  seasons  are  the  rule  and  haying  by  methods  prac- 
ticed in  dryer  climates  is  out  of  the  question.  When  thus  suspended  the 
water  from  the  rains  is  readily  shed,  the  forage  will  not  rot  as  fast  as  it 
would  if  resting  directly  on  the  ground,  and  it  may  be  left  thus  suspended 
for  a  week  or  ten  days  during  rainy  weather  without  spoiling. 

The  losses  suffered  in  the  sun-curing  process  of  hay  making,  even  in 
favorable  seasons,  are  not  inconsiderable.    Raking,  tedding,  cocking,  and 


20 


THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


the  possible  repetition  of  these  processes,  cause  loss  of  the  more  delicate 
portions  of  the  plants  (blossoms,  leaflets,  tips),  the  most  valuable  parts. 
Under  favorable  harvest  conditions  this  loss  is  equal  to  about  10  per  cent 
of  the  available  nutrients,  especially  crude  protein  and  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tractives (Falke).  In  the  second  place  the  loss  of  the  more  tender  or 
delicate  portions  of  the  plants  reduces  the  digestibility  of  the  forage.  This 
in  itself  amounts  to  a  loss  equal  to  1 5  per  cent  of  the  entire  food  value  of 


Fig. 


mountainous  country   of   southern    Germany. 


the  plant  (Kellner).  The  total  losses  sustained  by  the  usual  process  of 
sun-drying  or  sun-curing  hay  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  are 
therefore  25  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  the  forage.  One-fourth  of 
the  entire  crop !  In  the  air-curing  methods  the  losses  caused  by  breaking 
of  the  delicate  structures  of  the  plant  can  be  almost  wholly  avoided.  In 
this  method  the  plants  remain  undisturbed  on  the  drying  racks  until  cured. 
The  minimum  loss  is  suffered  when  the  plants  are  harvested  and  fed  in 
their  fresh  or  green  state  (soiling). 


HAY  MAKING  21 

Under  unfavorable  weather  conditions  the  losses  sustained  from  the 
sun-curing  method  are  still  greater — leaching,  loss  of  leaves,  etc.,  and  de- 
composition. The  extent  of  the  loss  sustained  under  these  conditions  is 
shown  by  the  investigations  of  Emmerling  and  others.  Hay  lying  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  elements  for  ten  days  and  receiving  47  mm.  (approxi- 
mately 2  inches)  of  rain  and  another  lot,  exposed  for  20  days  and  receiv- 
ing 93  mm,  (approximately  4  inches)  of  rain,  showed  losses  as  follows,  as 
compared  with  hay  harvested  under  the  most  favorable  weather  condi- 
tions : 

Duration  of                Dry  Crude  Crude  Nitrogen-free    Crude  Mineral 

exposure                 matter  protein            fat            extract           fiber  matter 

Percent  Percent  Percent        Percent        Percent  Percent 

10  days  13.5                9.9              49.5              16.3                2.5  12.8 

20  days  46.1              45.9              72.9              46.6              27.7  48.6 

Exposure  to  rain  also  affects  the  digestibility  of  the  nutrients  in  the  hay. 
According  to  Behrend  the  percentage  of  protein  that  is  digested  in  hay  is 
as  follows : 

Per  cent. 

Properly  cured  hay 55.9 

Rain-soaked  hay 46.0 

Hay  exposed  to  rain  to  the  point  of  spoiling 40.4 

These  losses  are  considerably  less  in  air-cured  hay.  According  to  Falke 
these  losses  in  sun-cured  hay  (ordinary  weather)  amounted  to  23  per  cent, 
in  bad  weather  50  per  cent,  while  it  was  only  18  per  cent  in  air-cured  hay 
under  the  same  conditions. 

To  get  the  best  results,  no  more  grass  should  be  cut  at  a  time  than  can 
be  taken  care  of  and  harvested  in  the  course  of  one  or  two  days,  irrespec- 
tive of  weather  conditions. 

Sun  curing  is  suitable  for  grasses  under  favorable  weather  conditions, 
but  not  for  clovers,  on  account  of  the  loss  of  leaflets,  buds,  blossoms,  etc., 
when  handled  in  a  dry  and  brittle  condition.  Qovers,  to  obtain  most 
profitable  results,  should  be  air  cured,  which  is  recommended  also  for  all 
other  green  forages. 

Hay  should  be  thoroughly  dry  before  being  stored  in  barns  or  sheds. 
Hay  stored  in  a  damp  condition  will  become  heated  and  even  charred  or 
will  actually  ignite. 

b.    Artificial  Drying 

A  number  of  watery  feedstuffs,  in  order  that  they  may  be  preserved 
without  loss  of  valuable  nutrients,  are  subjected  to  artificial  desiccation 
(potatoes,  sugar  beets,  distillery  wastes,  pulps,  brewers'  grains,  beet  pulp, 
etc.) 

Desiccation  has  the  further  advantage  of  reducing  bulk  and  weight  and 
consequently  transportation  expense.  The  apparatus  and  technique  em- 
ployed are  quite  variable. 


22 


THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OE  ANIMALS 


Desiccated  potatoes  are  prepared  as  follows: 

1.  The  raw  potatoes  are  reduced  to  slices,  shavings  or  flakes  and  then 
subjected  to  the  action  of  heated  air,  combustion  gases  or  steam. 

2.  Previously  steamed  potatoes  are  dried  in  oil-heated  or  steam-heated 
drums  at  a  temperature  of  266°  to  284°  F.  The  portions  adhering  to  the 
surface  of  the  drums  are  almost  immediately  reduced  to  a  12-15  per  cent 
water  content  and  then  removed  by  means  of  special  knives,  in  the  form  of 
flakes. 

3.  The  potatoes  are  subjected  to  pressure  to  remove  the  excess  water 
and  then  dried.    The  potato  cake  thus  obtained  consists  of  a  rather  dark, 


Apparatus    for    preparing    dried    potato    flakes. 


crumbly  mass  of  pleasing  odor  resembling  that  of  fresh  bread.  Potato 
cake  contains  less  proteids  than  other  preparations. 

Figs.  7  and  8  illustrate  potato  drying  apparatus. 

The  potatoes  are  first  cleaned,  steamed  (for  other  apparatus  it  is  neces- 
sary to  reduce  them  to  small  pieces)  and  then  dried.  The  steamed  pota- 
toes are  fed  into  the  machine,  crushed  between  rollers,  pressed  against  the 
heated  walls  of  the  drums  and  dried.  They  are  then  automatically  scraped 
off  with  knives  and  mixed  in  bins. 

Distillery  wastes  are  dried  in  a  similar  manner. 

The  desiccation  of  beet  leaves,  which  is  practically  impossible  by  natu- 
ral methods  during  cool  and  damp  fall  weather,  is  similarly  accomplished. 

Beet  pulp,  brewers'  grains  and  other  pulps  are  first  subjected  to  pres- 
sure to  remove  most  of  the  water,  then  dried.  For  drying,  filtered  fur- 
nace gases  and  high  pressure  steam  (or  exhaust  steam)  are  utilized.  The 
temperature  therefore  necessarily  varies. 


CONSERVATION  BY  FERMENTATION  23 

Artificial  desiccation  affects  the  digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  especially  when  high  temperatures  are  used. 

The  cost  of  desiccation  is  about  5  cents  per  cwt.  (in  Germany). 

3.    Fermentation 

The  process  of  fermentation  is  applicable  in — 

a.  The  production  of  so-called  "baked  hay." 

b.  The  production  of  so-called  "brown  hay." 

c.  The  production  of  sweet  silage. 

d.  The  production  of  sour  feeding  stuffs  or  silage. 

"Baked  hay,"  according  to  Klappmeyer,  is  prepared  as  follows : 

"*^  a.   "Baked  Hay" 

The  freshly  mown  grass,  free  from  dew,  is  stacked  in  cocks  10  feet 
high,  and  after  one  to  three  days  scattered  again.  In  favorable  weather 
it  will  then  dry  sufficiently  in  about  five  hours.    This  method  is  no  longer 


Fig.   9.     Stack   of  "Brown   Hay." 

in  common  use,  the  results  being  too  uncertain.  While  in  the  cocks  the 
temperature  of  the  hay  reaches  about  160°  F.,  which  favors  the  drying 
process  when  the  hay  is  scattered.  When  carried  out  under  favorable 
weather  conditions  the  losses  in  nutrients  are  negligible. 

b.    "Brown  Hay" 

The  production  of  "brown  hay"  has  been  practiced  for  a  long  time  in 
regions  where  climatic  conditions  are  unfavorable  for  hay  production  by 
ordinary  methods.  It  is  especially  practicable  in  the  curing  of  second 
growth  or  aftermath.  The  grass  or  clover  is  cut  and  immediately  put  up 
into  small  cocks  and  left  for  24  to  36  hours.  In  this  wilted  condition  it  is 
then  built  up  in  layers  into  stacks  10  to  20  feet  high  (Fig.  9). 

Thus  prepared,  it  undergoes  a  process  of  fermentation  through  the 
action  of  Bacillus  coli,  Bacillus  calf  actor,  Oidium  lacHs,  Actinomyces  ther- 
mophilus,  Thermomyces,  Thermoascus,  species  of  Aspergillus  and  Muco- 


24"^    Jk  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

vC^  rms,  etc.  At  the  expiration  of  six  weeks  the  fermentation  and  drying 
-*v^^C^process  is  completed  and  the  product  is  an  air-dried,  aromatic,  compact 
l^r  ,  *^  mass,  of  light  brown  color,  pungent  odor  and  good  keeping  qualities  (so- 
1,  called  brown  hay),  which  is  relished  by  animals. 

»^  The  losses  of  nutrients  occurring  in  this  mode  of  preparing  hay  amount 

to  15  to  30  per  cent.  They  are  confined  chiefly  to  the  carbohydrates  (as 
high  as  45  per  cent  of  these)  and  to  some  extent  the  crude  proteins  and 
fats.  In  addition  to  this  loss,  the  digestibility  of  the  proteins  is  impaired. 
The  extent  of  the  losses  depend  in  a  measure  on  the  size  of  the  stacks. 
The  losses  are  considerably  less  in  the  stacks  customarily  built  in  northern 
Germany  (about  10  or  12  feet  in  diameter)  than  in  those  of  southern  Ger- 
many, where  they  are  made  twice  this  diameter.  The  digestibility  of  the 
albumins  is  also  impaired.  The  plant  tissues  in  this  form  of  hay  are  very 
friable  and  easily  crushed  between  the  fingers. 

c.    Sweet  Silage 

The  term  "sweet  silage"  is  applied  to  succulent  forage  that  has  under- 
gone a  process  of  auto  fermentation  and  heating  to  a  marked  degree.  Any 
green  succulent  forage  plants  are  suitable  for  the  preparation  of  sweet 
silage;  e.  g.,  grass,  clover,  Indian  com,  beet  leaves  and  tops,  carrots  and 
turnips. 

The  character  of  the  products  of  fermentation  is  dependent  upon  the 
temperature  at  which  the  latter  takes  place. 

1.  Acetic  acid  fermentation  takes  place  at  a  temperature  of  65°  to  95° 
F.  In  the  production  of  sour  ensilage  this  form  of  fermentation  is  usually 
not  unimportant  in  its  effects.  The  acetic  acid  bacteria  are  destroyed  at  a 
temperature  of  122°  F. 

2.  Butyric  acid  fermentation  occurs  at  temperatures  between  95°  and 
98.6°  F.,  under  anaerobic  conditions  (absence  of  oxygen).  The  spores 
of  these  bacteria  are  very  resistant  to  the  action  of  heat.  Butyric  and 
other  volatile  fatty  acids  are  easily  recognized  by  their  disagreeable  rancid 
odor. 

3.  Lactic  acid  fermentation  takes  place  at  temperatures  between  86* 
and  149°  F.  This  is  the  character  of  fermentation  most  desirable  in  all 
feeding  stuff  fermentations.  In  order  that  this  form  of  fermentation  may 
take  place  without  interference  by  those  less  desirable,  it  should  take  place 
between  122°  and  149°  F.  Compared  with  the  sour  odor  of  acetic  acid 
and  the  rancid  smell  of  butyric  acid,  lactic  acid  is  practically  odorless. 
The  most  important  lactic  acid  bacteria  are  Bacillus  delbruecki  (warm 
milk  lactic-acid  bacillus)  and  B.  cucumcris  fermentati  and  Bacterium 
lactis  acidi  (cold  milk  lactic-acid  bacteria  I  and  II). 

In  the  production  of  sour  silage  (common  silage)  not  only  lactic  acid 
but  a  large  amount  of  acetic  acid  is  formed.  This  is  the  cause  of  the  sour 
smell  of  ordinary  silage,  hence  its  name.  When  the  preparation  of  sweet 
silage  is  properly  conducted,  no  acetic  nor  butyric  acids  are  formed,  but 
only  lactic  acid.     Sweet  silage  therefore  has  no  sour  smell,  but  rather  a 


SILAGE 


sweet  or  honey-like  odor.  For  these  reasons  the  two  varieties,  sweet  and 
sour  silage,  are  distinguished.  From  a  chemical  point  of  view,  of  course, 
sweet  silage,  on  account  of  the  lactic  acid  it  contains,  is  also  a  sour  (acid) 
silage. 

According  to  Von  Wenckstern,  Heinerle  and  Richardsen,  sweet  silage 
production  as  compared  with  ordinary  haymaking  is  a  marked  advance  in 
forage  conservation,  on  account  of  its  decidedly  greater  economy. 


Fig.   10.     Herba  Reform   Silo  for  Sweet  Silage. 

The  foundation  of  our  present  methods  of  sweet  silage  production  we 
owe  to  the  efforts  of  Graf.  The  latter  placed  slightly  wilted  grass  in 
masses  3  to  6  feet  thick  and  subjected  them  to  high  pressure  in  a  hay 
press.  This  caused  the  mass  to  heat  to  a  temperature  of  122°  F.  The 
result  was  a  juicy  sweet  feed,  greedily  eaten  by  cattle  and  other  animals. 


26  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

Since  the  air  had  free  access  to  the  edges  of  these  compressed  masses, 
much  of  the  material  was  destroyed  or  lost  by  decomposition  or  decay. 
To  avoid  these  losses  Messmer  and  Sonderegger  put  the  grasses  in  the 
wilted  stage  into  sealed  cement  reservoirs  (or  silos)  and  a  Swiss  firm  has 
manufactured  a  patented  mechanical  press  for  the  purpose  (Fig.  10). 

The  present-day  method  is  as  follows:  The  grass,  freshly  mowed,  or 
in  a  slightly  wilted  or  partially  dried  condition,  is  loosely  but  evenly 
packed,  or  layered,  into  specially  constructed  silos,  having  walls  of  double 
layers  of  hollow  tile,  cement-lined  on  the  inside.  The  grass  is  thus  piled 
up  from  3}^  to  5  feet  high.  Within  24  hours  the  temperature  of  this  mass 
rises  to  122°  F.  (to  be  determined  by  aid  of  thermometer). 

As  already  explained,  it  is  important  that  this  temperature  be  attained,  other- 
wise, at  lower  temperatures  (under  109°  F)  acetic  and  butyric  acid  fermentation 
will  be  in  excess,  and  spoil  the  product.  Lactic  acid  fermentation  does  not  occur 
except  at  temperatures  above  109°  F.  This  has  a  sterilizing  effect  upon  the  feed 
and  a  favorable  dietetic  effect. 

As  a  result  of  oxydation  processes  (combustion)  which  occur  during  fermenta- 
tion, the  mass  becomes  heated.  The  amount  of  heat  generated  is  dependent  upon 
the  amount  of  air  that  has  access,  and  this  can  be  regulated  by  compression  of  the 
mass.  Increased  compression  checks  oxydation  and  reduces  the  temperature  by 
shutting  off  the  air,  and  vice  versa. 

When  the  temperature  reaches  122°  F.  another  layer  of  equal  thickness 
(3j4  to  5  feet)  is  added  loosely,  treated  as  before,  and  so  on  until  the 
silo  is  filled.  The  topmost  layer  is  then  covered  with  planks  and  the  entire 
contents  of  the  silo  subjected  to  the  pressure  of  a  mechanical  hand  press. 
After  4  to  6  weeks  the  process  is  completed  and  the  feed  is  "done,"  al- 
though it  may  be  used  for  feeding  purposes  before  this  time.  It  will  keep 
for  one  year.  If  the  process  of  filling  the  silo  is  interrupted,  the  last  layer 
put  in  should  be  pressed  as  above  explained,  as  soon  as  properly  heated. 

Successfully  prepared  sweet  silage  or  "press  feed"  has  a  light  green  to 
brown  color.  Very  light  green  color  indicates  low  temperatures  during 
the  process  of  curing  and  is  attended  with  the  presence  of  more  volatile 
acids  (which  is  undesirable).  The  darker  the  color,  the  higher  the  tem- 
peratures during  the  curing  stage.  Too  much  heating  reduces  the  nutri- 
tive value  of  the  feed.    An  olive  green  color  is  the  most  desirable. 

The  smell  should  be  neither  sour  (volatile  acids,  too  low  temperatures 
during  fermentation)  nor  putrid,  nor  musty  (decay  and  moldiness),  nor 
should  it  be  that  of  brown  hay  (from  too  high  temperatures).  The  odor 
of  good  press  feed  should  remind  one  of  that  of  dried  or  baked  plums! 
The  taste  should  be  only  slightly  acid. 

The  structure  of  the  plants  should  be  preserved.  The  botanical  char- 
acter of  the  grasses  should  still  be  clearly  recognizable,  and  in  contrast 
to  ordinary  hay,  they  should  retain  all  of  the  smaller  and  more  delicate 
organs  and  appendages  of  the  stem  and  leaves.  If  the  plants  are  easily 
broken  or  crushed  the  curing  temperatures  were  too  high. 

Physically,  sweet  silage  or  "press  feed"  is  moist  or  clammy  to  the  touch 
and  contains  about  66  per  cent  of  water  and  34  per  cent  dry  matter.  The 
latter  is  composed  of  crude  protein,  5.25  per  cent,  of  which  2.6  per  cent 


SILAGE  27 

is  digestible  (practically  equal  parts  of  pure  albumin  and  amids),  1.3  per 
cent  crude  fat,  13.5  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract,  9.5  per  cent  crude  fibre, 
and  3.5  per  cent  crude  ash  or  mineral  matter.  There  is  present  also  1.24 
per  cent  of  lactic  acid  (according  to  Liechti  1.6  to  4.1  per  cent)  and  only 
0.14  per  cent  of  undesirable  volatile  acids. 

The  chief  advantages  of  this  method  of  preserving  feeding  stuffs  are, 
according  to  Wenckstern : 

1.  Increased  food  value. 

2.  Favorable  effect  on  milk  secretion. 

3.  Saving  of  labor. 

4.  Independence  of  vv^eather  conditions. 

5.  Saving  of  storage  room. 

Final  judgment  on  the  value  of  this  form  of  feeding  stuff  can  not,  how- 
ever, be  pronounced  at  this  time.  According  to  the  investigations  of  the 
agricultural  experiment  station  of  Bern-Liebefeld,  neither  press  feeds 
(sw^eet  silage)  nor  the  ordinary  sour  silage  possess  any  advantage  over 
ordinary  dry  hay  in  feeding  for  milk  production.  On  the  contrary,  the 
taste  and  flavor  or  odor  of  the  milk  are  said  to  be  unfavorably  affected, 
and  even  made  unfit  for  the  production  of  Emmental  cheese. 

According  to  Liechti,  the  loss  in  dry  matter  in  this  process  is  compara- 
tively slight,  5-9  per  cent  as  compared  w^ith  15-25  per  cent  in  sun-dried  or 
air-dried  hay  (including  the  mechanical  loss  of  5-10  per  cent  in  handling 
in  the  field).  The  losses  are  confined  mainly  to  the  nitrogen-free  extract 
(11-18  per  cent)  and  pure  albumin,  v^hich  is  partly  converted  into  am- 
monia and  otherwise  loses  50  per  cent  in  digestibility.  Of  100  parts  of 
digestible  crude  protein  only  45  parts  remain  in  the  completed  sweet  silage. 

d.    Ordinary  or  Sour  Silage 

The  method  of  producing  sour  silage  is  suitable  for  succulent  or  fleshy 
feeding  stuff's,  which  can  not  be  air  dried,  e.  g.,  leafy  forage,  beet  tops, 
green  Indian  corn,  beet  and  potato  pulp,  etc.  Under  unfavorable  weather 
conditions  the  method  is  also  resorted  to  for  the  preservation  of  grass, 
clover,  alfalfa  or  lucerne,  esparset,  vetches,  mixed  forage,  etc. 

Ensilaging  is  also  specially  adapted  for  preserving  the  less  palatable 
feeding  stuffs  like  potato  tops  and  lupines  (Stutzer).  As  a  rule  these  mate- 
rials (beets  and  potatoes)  are  previously  reduced  to  small  pieces  or  the 
interstices  are  filled  with  beet  or  potato  pulp. 

This  material  is  stored  in  pits,  10  feet  wide  and  6  or  7  feet  deep,  with 
clay  or  cement  bottom,  or  in  regular  silos.  It  is  thoroughly  compressed 
and  then  covered  with  a  one-inch  or  one-and-a-half -inch  layer  of  chaff 
or  leaves.  When  the  mass  has  become  heated  to  95°  to  104°  F.  it  is 
covered  with  a  layer  of  earth  3  feet  thick,  well  tamped  down,  or  with  a 
layer  of  planks  well  weighted.  In  this  condition  the  feeding  stuffs  under- 
go a  lactic  acid  fermentation.  The  fermentation  is  complete  after  the 
lapse  of  6  to  8  weeks  and  the  silage  is  ready  for  use.  It  has  characteristics 
resembling  those  of  cooked  feed,  a  sour  odor  and  taste,  and  may  contain 


28  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

as  high  as  29  per  cent  free  acid  (two-thirds  lactic  and  one-third  acetic 
acid  and  under  unfavorable  conditions  quantities  of  butyric  acid)  (esti- 
mates for  the  dry  matter — Morgen). 

In  good  silos  silage  will  keep  almost  indefinitely  (one  year),  but  it 
quickly  spoils  when  exposed  to  the  air.  The  process  of  silage  prepara- 
tion causes  a  loss  of  about  20  to  35  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter.  The  crude 
protein  suffers  most,  being  converted  into  ammonia  and  nitrogen- free 
extract  with  formation  of  organic  acids.  On  account  of  the  great  losses 
inevitable  in  the  preparation  of  silage,  this  method  should  not  be  practiced 
when  other  means  of  preservation  are  possible  and  successful. 

The  usual  method  of  silage  preparation  is  attended  with  the  develop- 
ment of  great  numbers  of  different  species  of  microorganisms  (bacteria, 
mold  and  yeast  fungi)  (Henneberg)  which  cause  desirable  as  well  as  un- 
desirable fermentations  and  decompositions.  Henneberg  recommends 
inoculation  with  pure  cultures  of  desirable  species  of  bacteria  in  order  to 
control  the  character  of  the  product. 

Inoculation  gives  the  best  results  with  feeding  stuffs  comparatively  free 
from  bacteria,  like  steamed  or  sterilized  shredded  beets,  potatoes,  etc. 
Whether  inoculation  would  be  of  any  advantage  for  feeding  stuffs  com- 
paratively rich  in  a  bacterial  flora,  like  grass,  beets  and  beet  tops,  etc.,  is 
still  an  unsettled  question. 

II.    The  Preparation  of  Feeding  Stuffs 

This  subject  will  be  discussed  under  the  following  heads: 

1.  The  reduction  of  coarse  material  into  fine  particles. 

2.  Moistening  and  soaking. 

3.  Cooking,  scalding  and  steaming. 

4.  Roasting. 

5.  Leaching. 

6.  Fermenting. 

7.  The  conversion  of  indigestible  into  digestible  matter. 

8.  Predigestion. 

9.  Baking. 

1.  The  reduction  of  coarse  feed  particles  to  smaller  size  (especially 
the  roughages)  saves  energy  by  assisting  or  supplementing  mastication. 
The  usual  method  consists  of  cutting  or  chaffing.  Chaffed  straw  for 
cattle  is  usually  cut  about  one  or  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length ;  for 
horses  about  four-fifths  of  an  inch  ;  for  sheep  one-half  to  one  inch.  Green 
forage  or  hay  is  usually  cut  a  little  longer. 

Digestibility  is  not  affected  by  this  process,  nor  by  grinding.  It  only 
aids  mastication,  which,  in  the  case  of  straw,  is  not  even  always  desirable. 

Root  crops  (potatoes,  beets,  etc.)  are  cut  or  chopped  for  hygienic  rea- 
sons (to  prevent  choking)  and  to  facilitate  mixing  with  less  palatable 
feeding  stuffs,  or  they  may  be  cooked  and  crushed.  Chopped  root  crops 
are  subject  to  spoiling  and  should  therefore  be  fed  the  same  day  they 
are  prepared. 


MOISTENING  AND  SOAKING  29 

The  grains  are  frequently  ground,  cracked  or  "rolled"  so  that  the  con- 
tained nutrients  may  be  the  better  utilized  in  the  various  digestive  pro- 
cesses. "Rolling"  breaks  the  skin  or  shell  of  the  grain  but  the  crushed 
contents  remain  intact.  "Cracking"  serves  to  reduce  the  grain  to  smaller 
but  coarse  particles.    Grinding  reduces  it  to  a  powder  form. 

These  processes  all  serve  to  increase  digestibility  to  some  extent,  about 
1  to  2  per  cent  for  oats  fed  to  healthy  horses,  and  5  to  10  per  cent  for 
swine.  In  case  of  the  hard  grains  (corn,  rye,  beans  and  peas)  the  advan- 
tages are  still  more  marked  (Jordan  and  Hall,  Gay,  Henry).  For  these 
reasons  the  moderately  soft  grains  are  usually  fed  whole  to  horses  and 
swine,  while  the  hard  grains  give  better  results  when  rolled,  crushed  or 
ground  and  fed  with  cut  feed.  Swine  should  never  receive  whole  grain 
for  most  economical  results. 

2.  Moistening  and  soaking  assist  or  facilitate  prehension,  prevent 
blowing  away  or  inhalation  of  finely  divided  or  dusty  particles,  and  facili- 
tate mixing.  According  to  Kuehn  it  has  no  appreciably  favorable  effect 
on  digestion.  It  is  usually  practiced  in  cattle  feeding  and  avoided  for 
horses  and  sheep.  In  more  recent  times  the  moistening  or  soaking  of  the 
concentrates  is  usually  dispensed  with  as  serving  no  special  end,  except 
in  swine,  when  liberal  additions  of  water  are  frequently  made. 

For  cattle  and  even  for  swine  dry  feeding  is  now  being  practiced  more 
and  more.  Dry  feed  is  consumed  more  slowly,  masticated  more  thor- 
oughly, mixed  better  with  the  saliva,  and  consequently,  in  all  probability, 
is  more  thoroughly  utilized  by  the  body. 

In  general,  long-continued  soaking  has  not  proved  of  advantage.  It  is 
still  resorted  to  chiefly  for  hard  grains  that  for  certain  reasons  it  may  not 
be  practicable  to  crack  or  grind,  and  for  dried  pulp,  etc. 

3.  Cooking,  scalding  and  steaming  save  energy  in  aiding  mastication, 
increase  palatability,  destroy  injurious  microorganisms,  animal  parasites 
and  chemical  poisons  (lupines),  but  they  also  destroy  the  enzymes  which 
happen  to  be  present  in  the  feeding  stuffs  so  treated.  The  digestibility  of 
the  crude  protein  is  reduced  or  impaired  by  cooking,  etc. 

In  general,  it  is  not  advisable  either  to  cook,  scald  or  steam  pure  or 
unspoiled  feeding  stuffs  that  are  easily  digestible  in  the  raw  state.  The 
practice  is  rather  to  be  limited  to  feeding  stuffs  that  would  otherwise  not 
be  completely  utilized  and  to  such  as  require  the  application  of  heat  to 
remove  certain  injurious  properties. 

The  cooking  or  steaming  of  potatoes  has  become  quite  customary  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  their  digestibility  and  palatability  are  improved  in 
this  way.  Cooking  and  steaming  are  also  resorted  to  for  the  removal  of 
the  toxic  substances  in  lupines. 

According  to  the  method  of  Kellner,  the  lupine  seeds  are  soaked  in  cold 
or  in  lukewarm  water  for  24  to  36  hours,  then  boiled  for  one  hour,  or 
steamed  (without  pressure)  and  then  leached  with  cold  water  to  remove 
their  bitter  taste.  The  leaching  process  requires  about  48  hours  and  may 
be  conducted  with  flowing  water  or  by  changing  the  standing  water  every 


30  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

6  to  12  hours.  This  makes  the  grains  "slippery,"  and  subsequent  crush- 
ing before  feeding  is  therefore  advisable.  The  losses  occasioned  by  this 
process  amount  to  3  to  5  per  cent  of  the  pure  albumin,  20  to  40  per  cent 
of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  and  50  to  60  per  cent  of  the  mineral  matter. 
The  process,  however,  also  removes  all  the  bitter  principles  and  thus  fits 
the  product  for  feed  for  milk  covins. 

The  feeding  of  wet  or  soaked  feed  calls  for  scrupulous  cleanliness  of 
the  mangers  or  feed  troughs. 

4.  Roasting  is  always  attended  with  considerable  loss  of  digestible 
nutrients  and  is  therefore  rarely  resorted  to.  It  may  serve  to  remove  cer- 
tain unpalatable  constituents  of  certain  feeding  stuffs  (buckeyes  and 
lupines)  and  to  destroy  certain  injurious  microorganisms  and  their  prod- 
ucts. It  is  therefore  applicable  to  moldy  or  otherwise  partially  spoiled 
feeding  stuffs,  or,  for  dietetic  purposes  (roasted  oats,  etc.),  to  check 
diarrhea, 

5.  Leaching  serves  to  remove  soluble  injurious  substances,  but  is  at- 
tended with  loss  of  nutrients.  It  is  applicable,  above  all,  for  the  removal 
of  the  bitter  principles  and  the  toxic  substances  in  lupines.  This  is  the 
principle  made  use  of  when  lupine  hay  is  left  on  the  ground,  exposed  to 
the  rains,  until  late  in  the  season  or  even  winter.  The  seeds  are  treated 
by  more  artificial  methods.  Common  salt,  sulphuric  acid  or  lactic  acid, 
soda,  ammonia,  milk  of  lime  or  chlorid  of  lime  are  used  as  solvents  and 
extraction  fluids,  followed  by  the  use  of  soda  or  hydrochloric  acid  (as  the 
case  may  be)  for  neutralization  of  the  product,  by  washing  (Steiner). 
The  leaching  of  cooked  and  steamed  lupines  should  be  mentioned  in  this 
connection. 

The  leaching  of  sliced  potatoes  is  also  practiced  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
moving acrid  and  bitter  principles  (6  to  12  hours).  The  losses  are  slight 
(3  per  cent).  Leached  potatoes  may  be  fed  in  larger  quantities  than  the 
unleached  tubers. 

6.  Fermentation  is  frequently  practiced  with  mixed  cut  hay  and  straw, 
chaff,  green  forage,  cut  or  chopped  root  crops,  distillery  wastes,  even 
molasses,  etc.  Common  salt  is  usually  added  to  the  mixture.  The  mass 
is  placed  in  layers  in  troughs  or  wooden  boxes  or  thoroughly  mixed  and 
placed  in  piles  about  two  feet  high.  The  mass  should  be  thoroughly  wet, 
but  not  suffijciently  so  to  cause  water  to  drip  or  drain  off.  Sliced  or 
shredded  potatoes  or  beets  should  be  covered,  because  direct  contact  with 
air  imparts  a  bad  taste  to  them.  At  ordinary  temperatures  fermentation 
and  heating  soon  set  in  under  formation  of  lactic  and  acetic  acids,  as 
well  as  other  substances  with  fruity  and  winelike  odor.  The  mass  is  ready 
to  feed  in  the  course  of  48  hours. 

The  object  of  this  method  of  fermentation  is  to  improve  the  palatability 
of  the  feed,  to  enable  one  to  feed  potatoes  in  larger  quantities  in  the  raw 
state,  and  to  remove  their  acrid  taste  without  making  them  too  insipid. 
The  losses  occurring  in  the  feeding  stuffs  mentioned  amount  to  about  4 
per  cent.     In  feeding  stuffs  rich  in  nutrients  the  losses  are  considerably 


CONVERSION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  31 

greater  (bran,  meal,  oil  cake,  etc.).  It  is  best,  therefore,  to  make  use  of 
the  fermentation  process  just  described,  for  the  roughages  only,  and  to 
feed  the  concentrates  separately  or  mix  them  with  the  fermented  rough- 
ages immediately  before  feeding. 

This  character  of  feed  is  suitable  for  the  coarser  breeds  of  cattle  and 
sheep,  less  so  for  young  stock  and  horses,  and  for  swine  only  when  it  is 
composed  of  root  crops  and,  at  most,  minimal  quantities  of  finely  cut 
roughage. 

7.  Conversion.  This  chemical  term  is  used  to  designate  a  process  by 
means  of  which  woody  feeding  stuffs  (straw,  sawdust)  are  converted  into 
digestible  substances.  The  microscopical  incrustations  of  the  nutrient 
ingredients,  which  prevent  digestion,  are  removed  by  this  process.  A  cer- 
tain degree  of  conversion  occurs  in  the  ordinary  process  of  fermentation. 
To  convert  straw  more  completely,  more  effective  means  are  necessary, 
above  all,  treatment  with  strong  bases  (lye  and  unslaked  lime). 

It  is  to  Kellner  that  we  owe  our  knowledge  of  the  scientific  principle 
underlying  the  conversion  of  straw.  Lehmann,  of  Goettingen,  however, 
applied  the  principle  in  a  broad  and  practical  manner  in  his  work  which 
covered  a  period  of  more  than  twenty  years.  But  it  was  the  pressing 
necessity  of  the  late  World  War  that  led  to  its  general  adoption.  Oex- 
mann  deserves  the  credit  for  having  first  directed  attention  to  a  method 
for  ultilizing  the  straw  pulp  of  paper  mills  as  a  feeding  stuff.  This  pulp 
is  treated  with  mollasses  (straw  concentrate  II),  followed  by  treatment 
with  yeast  or  gluten  concentrate  (albuminous  straw  concentrate  I). 

Colsman  invented  a  process  of  converting  straw  that  could  be  conducted 
at  home,  on  the  farm..  The  straw  is  cooked  in  8  per  cent  sodium  lye,  in 
open  kettles  set  in  masonry.  The  superfluous  water  is  then  expressed. 
After  being  washed  to  remove  the  excess  lye,  the  matrial  is  ready  for 
feeding. 

Beckman  demonstrated  that  conversion  is  possible  and  practicable 
without  the  use  of  heat  and  that  the  lye  solution  can  be  used  a  second  and 
a  third  time  providing  it  is  reinforced  to  the  extent  of  the  used  fraction. 
This  simplifies  the  process  and  reduces  the  expense  materially.  An  addi- 
tional advantage  for  the  Beckman  process  is  that  many  of  the  nutrients 
that  are  destroyed  by  heat  are  retained.  The  available  product  is  in- 
creased in  this  manner  from  55  or  58  per  cent  to  75  or  80  per  cent.  The 
digestibility  of  straw  concentrate  is  about  70  to  75  per  cent  as  compared 
with  35  per  cent  of  the  untreated  or  unconverted  straw. 

Milk  of  lime  exercises  a  converting  effect  upon  straw  similar  to  that 
of  sodium  lye.  The  solution  of  the  silicic  acid  and  the  lignins  (to  the 
presence  of  which  the  indigestibility  of  straw  is  due)  is  less  complete, 
however,  while  the  desired  destructive  action  of  cellulose  and  of  the 
pentosanes  is  the  same  as  that  of  sodium  lye.  Thus  the  food  value  of 
straw  treated  with  lime  is  less  than  that  of  the  same  material  treated  with 
sodium  lye.  The  action  of  soda  (sodium  carbonate)  is  similar  to  that  of 
lime. 


32  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

For  practical  purposes,  on  the  farm,  straw  conversion  is  conducted  as 
follows : 

1.  Lehmann's  Method  (Goettingen) 

(a)  Boil  6  to  8  hours  in  sodium  lye  in  open  iron  kettles. 

(b)  Boil  6  to  8  hours  in  closed  tanks  in  sodium  lye  under  pressure  of 
5  to  6  atmospheres. 

The  first  method  is  not  followed  by  washing ;  the  second  is  followed  by 
washing.    Yield,  53  per  cent ;  loss,  47  per  cent. 

2.  Colsmann's  Method  (Lindenberg) 

Boiling  5y^  hours  in  8  per  cent  sodium  lye  in  open  kettles  set  in  ma- 
sonry.   Yield,  58  per  cent ;  loss,  42  per  cent. 

3.     Beckmann's  Method 
Treating  with  12  per  cent  sodium  hydroxid  solution  in  wooden  tubs, 
ordinary  temperature,  etc.    Yield,  73  to  80  per  cent. 

In  methods  1  and  2  the  straw  is  first  run  through  a  cutting  machine 
and  chaffed.  For  each  100  lbs.  of  straw  200  lbs.  of  water  and  10  lbs.  of 
sodium  lye  are  added ;  the  mixture  is  then  boiled,  and  after  the  mass  has 
been  thoroughly  drained  the  excess  lye  is  washed  out  with  fresh  water 
This,  of  course,  entails  loss  of  nutrients,  to  avoid  which  Thomann  recom- 
mends dispensing  with  the  washing  and  neutralizing  the  mass  by  the  addi- 
tion of  sour  whey  or  fermented  slops,  sour  ensilage,  etc.,  and  testing  prod- 
uct with  litmus  paper.  The  high  lye  content  of  the  straw  mass  and  the  low 
acid  content  of  the  neutralizing  feeding  stuffs  necessitates  the  addition  of 
very  considerable  amounts  of  the  latter  to  effect  neutralization.  The 
product  thus  obtained  is  greedily  eaten  even  by  horses  and  swine.  Swine 
receive  3  lbs.,  horses  4.5  lbs.,  cattle  30  lbs. 

Converted  straw,  after  the  customary  process  of  expressing  the  super- 
fluous water,  still  has  a  moisture  content  of  70  to  75  per  cent. 
The  dry  matter  has  the  following  composition : 

Digestible 
Per  cent       Per  cent 

Organic  matter 94.1  74 

Pure  albumin 0.6 

Nitrogen-free  extract    30.7  65 

Fat 1.0  32 

Crude  fiber 61.8  82 

Mineral  matter 5.8 

The  digestible  crude  fiber  is  digested  and  assimilated  as  thoroughly  and 
completely  as  starch. 

The  starch  value  in  the  dry  matter  is  as  follows : 

Per  cent 

Ordinary  straw 13.4 

Completely  converted  straw 85.0 

High-grade  converted  straw    65.0  to  70 

Moderately  converted  straw    50.0  to  60 


CONVERSION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  33 

If  the  losses  occurring  in  the  process  of  conversion  are  included  in  the 
calculation,  the  starch  values  with  reference  to  the  original  material  are 
as  follows : 

Per  cent 

Straw   13.4 

Straw  pulp  of  paper  mills 42.0 

High-grade  converted  straw  39  to  42 

Moderately  converted  straw 38  to  40 

Whether  the  conversion  of  straw  as  practiced  by  present  methods  will 
continue  to  be  practiced  after  the  return  to  normal  conditions  remains  to 
be  seen.  The  Lehmann  and  Colsmann  methods  are  undoubtedly  too  ex- 
pensive (necessary  apparatus,  etc.).  Beckmann's  method  may  survive, 
but  much  will  depend  upon  the  condition  of  the  grain  and  feed  market. 
From  a  national  economic  point  of  view  it  would  undoubtedly  be  a  bless- 
ing if  the  enormous  straw  product  of  the  country  could  be  more  profitably 
utilized  than  in  the  past. 

Animals  must  be  accustomed  gradually  to  the  use  of  wet  "straw  con- 
centrate." At  first  three  to  five  pounds  are  given  daily,  divided  into  three 
feeds  and  mixed  with  other  material.  If  oats  are  added  they  should  first 
be  crushed. 

Pea,  rape  and  turnip  straw  have  thus  far  proved  rather  refractory  to 
the  conversion  processes. 

The  conversion  of  wood  meal,  or  sawdust,  by  treatment  with  hydro- 
chloric acid  or  with  sodium  or  sulphite  lye  has  not  as  yet  given  encourag- 
ing results.  The  digestibility  and  palatability  depend  upon  the  species  of 
the  wood  as  well  as  upon  the  part  of  the  plant  or  tree  furnishing  the  same 
(base  or  trunk,  branches,  etc.),  whether  the  sawdust  is  the  product  of 
cross-cut  or  longitudinal  sawing,  the  method  of  conversion  employed,  etc. 
The  variation  in  this  respect  is  quite  marked.  Ether-soluble  constituents 
(resins,  turpentines,  etc.)  affect  digestibility  and  palatability  unfavorably. 
The  admissible  maximum  of  these  substances  varies  between  0.6  and  0.8 
per  cent.  These  substances  are  not  present  in  sulphite  and  sodium  cellu- 
lose. 

Converted  fir-tree  sawdust  or  meal,  highly  saccharinated  pine  wood 
meal  and  sulphite  cellulose  have  the  following  composition  (Ellenberger 
and  Waentig)  : 

Crude  Crude  Nit.-free  Crude 

Material                                  Water        Ash     Protein          Fat  Extract  Fiber 

Percent    Percent    Percent  Percent  Percent  Percent 

Fir  wood,  sawdust  or  meal 9.3            1.7            1.12            0.8             28.6  58.4 

Pine  wood,  sawdust  or  meal ...  7.4            2.6            1.25            0.6             30.9  57  0 

Sulphite  cellulose    8.9           1.3            ...           0.4             17.0  72!5 

The  digestibility  of  straw  pulp,  according  to  Kellner  and  Fingerling, 
is  89  per  cent  in  cattle  and  swine,  sheep  83  per  cent,  while  that  of  high- 
grade  converted  straw  is  68  to  70  per  cent,  low-grade  converted  straw 
60  to  65  per  cent,  surphite  cellulose  or  wood  cellulose  79  per  cent,  sodium 


34  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

cellulose  of  the  fir  84  per  cent  and  sodium  cellulose  of  th^  pine,  28  per 

cent. 

The  extreme  degree  of  pulverization  required  for  the  conversion  of 
wood,  as  well  as  the  comparative  scarcity  of  raw  material  even  for  neces- 
sary paper  manufacture,  makes  it  improbable  that  this  method  of  obtain- 
ing or  cheapening  feeding  stuffs  will  be  of  immediate  economic  impor- 
tance. 

8.  Predigestion.  We  distinguish  (a)  saccharification,  preparation  of 
sweet  mashes,  and  (b)  peptonization. 

(a)  Saccharafication,  or  the  preparation  of  sweet  mashes,  is  accom- 
plished with  the  aid  of  ferments  contained  in  sprouted  barley  (malt). 
Crushed  cooked  potatoes  constitute  the  raw  material.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  potatoes  are  treated  with  0.3  to  0.5  lbs.  of  malt  at  a  temperature 
of  122°  to  131°  F.  The  sweet  mash  thus  obtained  may  be  kept  from  10 
to  14  hours  longer  in  order  to  pemiit  the  lactic  acid  fermentation  which 
follows  to  make  the  mass  more  palatable.  This,  however,  is  not  recom- 
mended. 

Saccharification  is  also  made  use  of  in  calf  feeding.  In  order  to  utilize 
more  perfectly  the  starchy  feeding  stuffs,  it  has  been  recommended  to 
treat  the  starch  with  diastase  before  feeding  (diastasolin),  or,  what  is 
more  economical,  to  convert  the  starch  into  sugar  with  barley  malt.  Ani- 
mals relish  "saccharinated  starch"  and  digest  and  assimmilate  it  well,  and 
its  use  reduces  the  cost  of  calf  feeding  33  per  cent  (Hansen,  Schneider, 
Schmidt,  Pflugrath,  Haselhoft').  The  meal  (ground  wheat,  starch,  potato 
flour,  etc.)  is  cooked  in  water  or  skim  milk  (about  lyi  ounces  to  the 
quart),  treated  with  crushed  malt,  kept  in  a  warm  place  for  half  an  hour, 
again  raised  to  the  boiling  point,  strained  and  immediately  fed. 

(b)  Peptonization  is  brought  about  with  gastric  juice  in  acid-reacting, 
and  with  pancreatic  extract  in  alkaline  reacting  feeding  stuffs.  It  is  prac- 
ticed with  meat  meal,  blood  meal,  milk  and  dairy  waste  products.  No 
real  necessity  exists  for  this  practice  and  it  is  therefore  not  in  common 
use. 

9.  Baking.  The  raw  material  used  may  be  meal,  cracked  grains  and 
leguminous  seeds,  bran,  meat  and  fish  meal,  blood  meal,  potatoes,  chaff, 
cut  hay  or  straw,  molasses,  slops,  dairy  waste  products,  etc.  Salt  and 
occasionally  yeast  or  leaven  are  added,  also  sufficient  water  to  make  a 
dough,  and  the  mixed  product  is  baked.  Bread  or  biscuits  of  this  nature 
are  serviceable  as  dog  and  horse  feed. 

C.     The  Most  Important  Feeding  Stuffs 

The  feeding  stuffs  used  for  domestic  animals  are  usually  classified  in 
the  following  manner : 

1.  Green  forage. 

2.  Roughage. 

3.  Tubers  and  root  crops. 

4.  Grains  or  cereals,  and  beans  and  peas. 


GREEN  FORAGE 


35 


5-9.     Commercial  waste  products   (from  milling,  brewing  and  distill- 
ing, sugar,  starch  and  oil  production). 
10.    Animal  feeding  stuffs. 

I.    Green  Forage 

The  term  "green  forage"  is  applied  collectively  to  all  feeding  stuffs 
that  are  used  or  fed  in  the  green  or  fresh  state.  The  term  is  applied  in 
particular  to  the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  grasses  (Graminese),  clovers,  a 
few  other  Leguminosae  (esparcet,  alfalfa  or  lucerne,  serradella,  hop 
trefoil)  (Medicago  lupulina),  kidney  vetch  (Anthyllis  vulneraria), 
white  or  Dutch  clover,  vetches,  sow  beans,  field  peas,  spurry  {Spergula 
arvensis),  buckwheat,  beets,  turnips,  etc. 

Botanical.  The  main  representatives  of  the  meadow  or  pasture 
grasses  are  the  socalled  true  meadow  grasses  or  sweet  grasses.  They  may 
be  recognized  by  their  round,  hollow,  nodose  stems,  the  split  sheathes  of 


Ik 


Fig.  11.     Stem  of  grass. 
a.  External   view 


longitudinal  section.       Fig.   12.     Stem  of  grass,   surrounded  by  leaf 
sheath,  ligule  and  leaf. 


the  leaf  bases  and  the  ligule  (Figs.  11  and  12),  and  are  thus  distinguished 
from  the  reeds  and  sedges  or  sour  grasses. 

The  sedges  are  characterized  by  a  triangular  solid  stem,  without 
nodes,  and  leaves  with  closed  sheathes.  These  so-called  sour  grasses 
grow  in  damp,  swampy  meadows  that  are  poorly  drained  and  in  which 
free  humic  acid  is  formed  by  the  conversion  of  the  humus  in  the  soil. 
The  principal  representatives  of  the  sour  grasses  are  the  Juncaceae 
(rushes),  Cyperaceai  (reeds)  and,  above  all  the  most  common,  the  genus 
Carex  or  the  sedges. 

With  reference  to  the  different  species  of  grasses  under  consideration, 
the  following  groups  are  distinguished : 

1.  Sweet  grasses. 

2.  Sour  grasses. 

3.  Scouring  rushes. 

4.  Herbaceous  plants. 

Below  is  given  a  short  guide  for  the  determination,  and  a  description, 
of  the  more  important  meadow  grasses : 


36  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

Key 

A.  Spike  grasses  including  false  spike  grasses  (spikelets  sessile  or  short- 
stemmed  on  the  unbranched  rachis)  : 

(a)  Spike  symmetrically  arranged  around  the  rachis; 
I.    Pales  awned: 

1.  Only  one  awn:     Alopecurus. 

2.  With  two  awns:    Anthoxanthtim. 

11.    Pales  not  awned,  glumes  mucronate :    Phleum. 

(b)  Spike  prismatic,  fourth  side  of  rachis  naked:    Cynosurus. 

(c)  Spike  bilateral,  the  other  two  sides  of  the  rachis  naked,  spikelets 

alternate. 
I.    Spikelets  short-stemmed:     Brachypodium. 
II.    Spikelets  sessile: 

1.  Spikelets  with  the  wide  side  toward  the  rachis :   Triticum. 

2.  Spikelets  with  the  narrow  side  toward  the  rachis :  Lolium. 

(d)  Spike  unilateral,  the  three  other  sides  naked:     Nardus. 

B.  Meadow    grasses    (Poa   sp.),    (spikelets    distinctly    stipitate,    rachis 

branched :    Poa. 

(a)  Spikelets  one-flowered  (or  apparently  so)  :     Agrostis. 

(b)  Spikelets  two  or  more  flowered : 

I.    Glumes  as  long  as  the  spikelets: 

1.  Spikelets  and  pales  arched:     Avena. 

2.  Spikelets  and  pales  compressed,  carinated:     Holcus. 
II.    Glumes  shorter  than  the  spikelets: 

1.  Spikelets  and  pales  carinated: 

(a)  Spikelets  glomerulate,  compressed  with  rachis:  Dac- 

tylis. 

(b)  Spikelets  solitary:    Poa. 

2.  (Spikelets  and)  pales  arched: 

(a)  Pales  usually  awned  at  tip;  stigma  inserted  at  tip 

of  ovary :    Festuca. 

(b)  Pales  awned  below  the  tip  or  naked ;  stigma  inserted 

below  the  tip  of  the  ovary :    Bromus. 

Alopecurus,  foxtail.  Cylindrical,  soft,  false  spike,  resembling  Phleum.  Spikelets 
of  Alopecurus  at  all  times  readily  stripped  from  above  upward,  while  those  of 
Phleum  can  be  stripped  only  in  maturity  and  then  with  difficulty.  Glumes  of 
Alopecurus  connate,  long,  pointed  densely  ciliated,  floral  glumes  (pales)  with  long 
awns;  spike  resembling  fox's  tail.  Glumes  in  Phleum  not  connate,  resembling 
bootjack. 

Alopecurus  pratensts,  meadow  foxtail  (Fig.  13).     Good  forage  grass,  on  meadows. 

Alopecurus  geniculatus,  jointed  foxtail.  Good  pasture  grass  but  short  lived. 
Anthers  yellowish  white,  leaves  somewhat  bluish  green. 

Anthoxanthum  odoratum,  common  spring  grass.  Of  little  value.  Rather  loose 
false  spike,  distinctly  pedunculated  spikelets  when  in  bloom  (panicled  spike). 

Phleum  pratense,  meadow  grass,  Herd's  grass,  timothy  grass  (cf.  Alopecurus). 
Valuable.    Dense,  stiff,  cylindrical,  false  spike  (Fig.  14). 

Lolium  italicum  and  L.  perenne,  Italian  and  English  rye  grass.    Highly  prized 


GREEN  FORAGE 


37 


meadow  and  pasture  grasses  (Fig.  15).  In  L.  italicum  floral  glumes  (pales)  usually 
distinctly  awned,  in  L.  perenne  glumes  naked  or  bluntly  acuminate. 

Cynosurus  cristatus,  common  dog's-tail  grass.  False  spike,  prismatic,  fourth  side 
of  the  rachis  naked.  Culm  rigid,  upright,  leaves  narrow.  Cristate  glumes  at  base 
of  each  spikelet  (sterile  florets).     Good  grass  of  medium  feeding  value. 

Nardus  stricta,  nardus  or  bristle  grass.    Low  grass  with  bristly  leaves.    No  value. 

Agrostis  alba,  bent  grass,  bonnet  grass,   florin   grass.     Panicle  pointed  when   in 


Fig.     13.     Meadow    Foxtail     {Alopecurus    pratensis). 


bloom;  conical;  contracted  after  blossom  period;   cespitose.    Forms  stolons.    Val- 
uable. 

Agrostis  vulgaris,  redtop,  dew  grass.  Herd's  grass  of  the  Southern  States.  Pan- 
icle purple,  oblong,  with  short,  spreading,  or  divaricate  roughish  branches.  Leaves 
linear  with  very  short  ligules,  sometimes  the  upper  one  elongated.  A  common  and 
valuable  grass  in  old  fields  and  drained  swamps.  It  is  quite  variable  in  aspect 
(Wood). 

Avena  elatior,  high  meadow  oats,  French  rye  grass.  Very  tall,  culm  2  to  4  feet 
high,  geniculate,  smooth.  Panicle  loose,  equal,  nodding;  branches  in  pairs  or  termi- 
nate.    Spikelets  bluish  violet,  becoming  straw  colored.     Excellent   forage  grass. 

Avena  pubescens,  downy  oatgrass.     Leaves  downy  on  both  sides. 
.,  Avena  pratensis,  meadow  oats. 


38 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


Avena  s.  Tristtum  flavescens,  golden  oats.  Culm  often  hairy  on  lower  internodes ; 
panicle  wide;  golden  iridescense  when  in  bloom;  panicle  delicately  branched,  rough; 
upper  blossoms  long  awned.     (Fig.  17). 

Holcus  lanatus,  woolly  honeygrass,  soft  grass.  Hoary  pubescent;  awns  recurved 
shorter  than  glumes;  spikelets  whitish  or  reddish.    Of  indifferent  food  value. 

Holcus  mollis,  soft  honeygrass.  Smooth,  naked;  awns  straight,  longer  than  the 
glumes   (Fig.  18). 

Dactylis  glomerata,  orchard  grass.  Spikelets  numerous,  aggregated,  compressed; 
spike  unilateral.     (Fig.   19).     Excellent  grass. 


Fig.    14.     Timothy    (Phleum   pratense). 


Fig.    15.     English   rye   grass 
(Lolium    perenne). 


Poa  pratensis,  spear  grass,  June  grass.  Culm  terete,  smooth,  panicle  contracted 
before  bloom,  then  spreading;  blue,  violet  or  brownish  hue.  Branches  rough;  blos- 
som glumes  covered  with  short  down;  forms  matted  stolons.     (Fig.  20). 

Poa  trivialis,  common  or  rough  meadow  grass.     Culm  and  leaf  sheaths  rough. 

Poa  serotina,  meadow  redtop,  foul  meadow.  Culm  erect,  weak,,  leaves  narrowly 
linear,  flat.  Varies  with  the  spikelets  all  two  flowered  and  colored  or  all  three  or 
more  flowered. 

Poa  nemoralis.     Leaf  sheaths  shorter  than  the  culm  joints;  nodes  bare. 

Poa  annua,  annual  spear-grass.     Very  small,  panicles  usually  unilateral. 

Poa   compressa,  bluegrass.    Culm   decumbent   and   rooting  at   base,  much   com-^ 


GREEN  FORAGE 


39 


pressed;  leaves  linear,  short,  bluish  green;  sheaths  rather  loose  with  a  short,  ob- 
tuse stipule.  A  valuable  grass  with  sweet  and  nutritious  herbage,  propagating  itself 
everywhere  (Virginia  and  Tennessee  northward)  in  woods,  pastures  and  meadows. 
Wood's  Botany. — Translator. 

Festtica  elatior  s.  pratensis,  tall  fescue  grass.  Rachis  unilateral,  spreading  when 
in  bloom,  otherwise  contracted;  branches  rough,  usually  in  pairs,  one  short  with 
one  spike,  the  other  long  and  raceme-like,  with  three  or  four  spikelets.  (Fig.  21). 

Festuca  arundinacca.  Rachiy  large,  nodding;  branches  rough,  in  pairs,  each  with 
5  to  10  spikelets. 


Fig.     16.      Agrostis    vulgar 


Festuca  heterophylla,  F.  ovina,  F.  rubra,  sheep  fescue  and  red  fescue.  Lower 
leaves  folded,  bristly. 

Festuca  gigantea,  giant  fescue.  Leaves  broad,  long  pointed,  drooping,  edges 
rough ;  awns  twice  as  long  as  the  pales ;  tortuous ;  woody  when  mature. 

Bromus  erectus  s.  pratensis,  meadow  chess.  Lower  leaves  very  narrow,  edges 
ciliated;  rachis  erect,  evenly  spreading.     (Fig.  22.) 

Bromus  mollis,  downy  chess.  Grayish  green ;  lower  pale  awned ;  leaf  sheathes 
downy. 

Bromus  racemosus.     Resembles  B.  mollis. 

Bromus  inermis,  unarmed  chess.  Leaves  and  leaf  sheathes  naked;  lower  glume 
awnless. 


40 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


GREEN  FORAGE 


Glyceria  fluitans,  manna  grass.  Rachis  unilateral;  branches  at  right  angles  when 
in  bloom,  later  compressed;  spikelets  very  long,  appressed.     (Fig.  23.) 

Glyceria  aquatica  s.  spectahilis,  water  chess.  Rachis  symmetrically  spread  out, 
very  branchy  and  spreading;  culm  thick,  reed-like.  (A  large  and  handsome  grass 
cultivated  for  hay  in  Europe. — Wood.) 

Phalaris  arundinacea,  Canary  grass.  Leaves  wide,  grayish  green ;  panicle  branched 
in  bloom,  contracted  at  other  times;  spikelets  in  clusters.  (Fig.  24.)  Tall  and 
reed-like. 

According  to  nutritive  value  and  palatability  the  sweet  grasses  are  arranged  in 
three  classes  as  follows: 

Grasses  of  the  first  rank:  Meadow  foxtail  (Alopecurus  pratensis),  timothy  grass 
(Phleum  pratense),  orchard  grass  (Dactylis  glomerafa),  tall  fescue  grass  (Festuca 
elatior),  Italian  rye  grass  (Lolium  italiciim),  English  rye  grass   {Lolium  perenne), 


Fig.    20.      Spear    Grass    (June    Grass)    {Foa   Pratensis). 

spear  grass  or  June  grass  {Poa  pratensis),  rough  meadow  grass  {Poa  trivialis), 
golden  oats  {Avena  flavescem — European  species),  meadow  oats  (Avetm  pratensis 
— European),  so-called  French  rye  grass  (Avena  elatior — European  species,  natur- 
alized in  United  States),  white  or  English  bent  grass  {Agrostis  alba  s.  stolonifera) , 
manna  grass  (Glyceria  fluitans). 

Grasses  of  the  second  rank:  True  manna  grass  (Glyceria  aquatica  s.  spectahilis), 
hairy  oats  (Avena  pubescens) ,  dog's-tail  grass  (Cynosurus  cristatus),  red  fescue 
grass  (Festuca  rubra  and  F.  heterophylla),  Canary  grass  (Phalaris  arundinaceae) ,  the 
various  species  of  chess  (Bromus  sp.),  common  redtop,  dew  grass,  or  Herd's  grass 
of  the  Southern  States  (Agrostis  vulgaris),  annual  spear-grass  (Poa  annua,  P. 
serotina,  P.  compressa,  P.  nenioralis) ,  quaking  grass  (Briza  media),  honeygrass  or 
soft  grass  (Holcus  lanatus),  sweet-scented  vernal  grass  (Anthoxanthum  odoratum), 
and  Brachypodium  pinnatum  and  B.  sylvaticum. 

Grasses  of  the  third  rank:  Aira  fleuosa  and  A.  caespitosa,  tuft-like  grasses  of 
the  United  States,  1  to  2  feet  and  18  to  30  inches  high,  respectively.  The  former  is 
an  erect,  elegant  grass,  common.  Bromus  giganteus  (giant  cheat  or  chess).  Agrostis 
spica   (a  species  of  bent  grass).     Calamagrostis  epigea   (a  calamus-like  Agrostis). 


42 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


I'"ig.  21.     Tall   Meadow  Fescue    {Festuca  ela- 
tior  s.  pratensis). 


Fig.   22.     Meadow   Chess   (Bromus  erectus  s. 
pratensis) .  \ 


Fig.    24.      Canary    grass    iphalaris    arundina- 
Fig.    23      Manna   grass    {Glyceria   Huiians).  cea). 


SOUR  GRASSES  43 

Arundo  phragmites  (reeds).  Aira  s.  W eingaertneria  canescens  (silver  gra,ss — 
Europe).  Molinia  coeriilea  (Europe).  Nardus  stricta  (bristle  grass — Europe). 
Ammophila  s.  Calamagrostis  arenaria   (mat  grass  or  sand  reed). 

As  compared  with  the  meadow  grasses,  the  so-called  sour  grasses 
have  a  very  low  feeding  value,  and  when  ingested  in  quantities  are  liable 
to  affect  the  health,  especially  that  of  the  digestive  organs. 

Organs — Koenig  ascribes  their  injurious  effect  to  the  presence  of  nauseating 
volatile  oil,  but  more  recent  investigations  have  shown  that  these  co-called  grasses 
contain  large  quantities  of  silicic  acid  in  their  tissues,  even  in  the  early  stages  of 
growth,  and  especially  in  the  leaves,  which  owe  their  rough  character  to  the  presence 
of  silica.  The  latter  acts  as  a  mechanical  irritant  to  the  mucous  membranes  of 
the  digestive  tract  and  leads  to  digestive  disturbances  and  even  active  inflammation. 
Holy  observed  increased  excretion  of  albumin  in  the  urine  and  proteid  substances  in 
the  fecal  discharges.  Under  these  conditions  the  tissues  must  suffer  from  albumin 
starvation.  The  incrustation  of  the  sour  grasses  with  silica  also  interferes  with 
the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids. 

The  various  species  of  the  sour  grasses  should  not,  however,  be  re- 
garded as  of  equal  inferiority.  Some  of  them  are  indeed  less  inferior 
than  some  of  the  sweet  grasses,  especially  the  felty  fruited  Carex  tomcn- 
tosa;  the  millet  sedge,  C.  Panic ea;  the  dioecious  sedge,  C.  dioeca;  the 
rush,  Juncus  botniciis;  and  the  two  species  of  Triglochin  (arrow  grass), 
T.  maritimum  and  T.  palustris*.  The  latter  are  regarded  as  first-class 
forages  and  are  highly  prized,  especially  as  feed  for  milk  cows.  They 
contain  only  small  quantities  of  silicic  acid  in  the  cell  walls  and  compara- 
tively few  silicious  spicules  on  the  edges  of  the  leaves.  On  the  other 
hand  there  are  sweet  grasses  which  are  provided  with  well-developed 
silicious  spicules  on  the  edges  of  the  leaves  and  a  needle-like  pubesence 
on  the  leaf  surfaces,  making  them  just  as  objectionable  as  the  sour 
grasses.  Giant  fescue  grass  is  of  this  nature,  as  well  as  some  other 
species.  Among  the  sour  grasses  Carex  canescens,  C.  pallescens  and  C. 
pilulifera  (all  European  species)  are  considered  of  medium  value  as 
forage.  Among  the  rushes  (Juncace-^e)  the  species  of  the  genus  Luziila 
(wood  and  field  rushes)  have  the  same  reputation.  The  latter  are  preva- 
lent in  the  United  States. 

The  horsetails  (Equisetaceae)  are  similar  to  the  sour  grasses  in  feeding 
value.  They  are  found  in  damp,  swampy  and  boggy  meadows.  The 
common  swamp  horsetail  (Equisetum  palustre)  is  a  very  inferior  forage, 
and  has,  in  addition,  an  unfavorable  effect  upon  milk  secretion,  espe- 
cially in  horses.  According  to  some  authors  it  is  said  to  have  toxic 
qualities.  On  the  other  hand  E.  limosum  (pipes)  and  E.  heleocharis 
(often  very  abundant  on  the  borders  of  ponds)  are  prized  as  good  for- 
age for  milk  cows  (not  for  horses).  E.  limosum  is  common  in  ,the 
United  States  on  borders  of  ponds  and  swamps  and  is  greedily  devoured 
by  cattle  and  sheep. 

Among  the  herbaceous  meadow  forage  plants  the  Leguminosse,  and 
particularly  the  different  species  of  clover  and  the  vetches,  Lathyrus 

4A11  of  these  sour  grasses  seem  to  be  European  species,  except  T.  maritimum  and  T.  palustris, 
which  are  also  indigenous  in  the  United  States,  where  cattle  are  fond  of  them,  especially  T. 
maritimum,   which  grows   on  salt   marches  and   lake  shores. — Translator. 


44  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

pratensis  (meadow  pea),  Vicia  cracca  (tufted  vetch)  and  V.  septum 
(fence  vetch)  are  most  highly  prized  as  forage  plants. 

Other,  mostly  wild,  herbaceous  forage  plants  are  pimpernel  (Pimpin- 
ella  saxifrage)  wild  burnet  (Sanguisorba  minor  s.  Poterium  sanguis- 
orba),  scabiose  {Centaur ea  scabiosa),  plantain  or  ribwort  (Plantago 
major)  (most  other  species  in  United  States  worthless  weeds),  lady's 
mantle  (Alchemilla  vulgaris)  ;  aromatic  plants — milfoil,  yarrow  or 
sneezewort  (Achillea  millifolium),  caraway  (Carum  carvi)  (not  com- 
mon in  United  States),  thyme  [Thymus  serpyllum),  marjoram  (Origan- 
um vulgare),  mint  (Mentha),  and  herbs  with  bitter  principles  like  tansy 
(Tanecetum  vulgare),  wormwood  (Artemisia),  succory  or  chicory 
(Cichorium  intybus),  elecampane  (Inula  helenium)  (esteemed  as  a  tonic 
and  expectorant),  gentian  wort  (Erythraea  centaurium),  germander 
(Teucrium),  etc.  An  admixture  of  these  aromatic  and  bitter  plants,  in 
moderate  amount,  with  other  forage,  is  usually  welcomed  on  account  of 
their  favorable  dietetic  action.  The  following  are  less  desirable  in  this 
respect.  Groundsel  (Senecio),  hawkweed  (Hieraceum) ,  knot  grass  and 
water  pepper  (Polygonum  persecarum  and  P.  hydropiper)  cleavers  and 
bed  straw  (Galium),  bugloss  and  oxtongue  (Anchusa),  chervil  (Chcero- 
phyllum),  cow  parsnip   (Heracleum  lanatum),  etc. 

Among  the  worthless  and  injurious  herbs  that  are  common  in  mead- 
ows are  the  following:  Dyer's  broom  or  woad  waxen  (Genista  tinc- 
toria),  thorny  commock  and  rest  harrow  (Ononis  spinosa),  thistles 
(Cirsium  s.  Cnicus),  sage  (Salvia  pratensis),  swamp  lousewort  (Pedicu- 
laris  palustris),  marsh  marigold  (Caltha  palustris),  silver  weed  or  goose 
grass  (Potentilla  anserina),  water  pepper  (Polygonum  hydropiper), 
knotgrass  (Polygonum  lapathifolium  tomentosum),  and,  above  all,  the 
poisonous  plants,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  crowfoot  or  butter- 
cup (Ranunculus  acer  and  R.  sceleratus),  aconite  or  wolf's-bane  (Aconi- 
tum  napellus),  chervil  (Cheer ophyllum  temulum),  water  hemlock  (Ciciita 
virosa),  spotted  hemlock  (Conium  maculatum),  hemlock,  waterdrop  wort 
or  dead  tongue  (OEnanthe  crocata  and  CEfistulosa),co\chicum  (Colchicum 
autumnale),  hedge  hissop  (Gratiola  officinalis),  red  foxglove  (Digitalis 
purpurea),  water  plantain  (Alisma  plantago),  poisonous  darnel  (Lolium 
temulentum),  dog's  mercury  (Mercurialis  perennis  and  M.  annua),  male 
fern  (Aspidium  filix-mas),  and  common  brake  (Pteris  aquilina). 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  meadow  grasses  varies  according  to 
the  species,  age  of  plants,  soil  and  fertilizer  conditions,  climate  and 
location. 

As  the  age  of  the  plant  advances  the  digestible  substance  diminishes 
and  the  crude  fiber  increases,  as  the  following  example  will  show: 

Hay  cut  and  dried  at  various  times,  but  under  otherwise  identical  con- 
ditions : 


SWEET  GRASSES  45 

Constituents                         Middle  of  May        Near  end  of  June        Near  end  of  July- 
Percent  Percent  Percent 

Water    15.0  15.0  15.0 

Crude  protein   16.1  9.5  7.2 

Pure  protein   10.5  8.0  6.7 

Crude  fat  2.9  2.3  2.3 

Nitrogen-free  extract   37.3  36.9  36.8 

Crude  fiber  21.0  29.5  32.5 

Ash m  6.8  6.2 

This  shows  the  advantage  in  feeding  meadow  grasses  when  in  the 
early  stages  of  growth  (before  or  at  blossom  time). 

Soil  and  fertilizer  conditions  have  a  marked  effect  upon  plants  and 
their  nutrient  constituents.  The  seed  itself  has  little  or  practically  no 
effect  (as  far  as  feeding  value  is  concerned)  upon  the  character  or  com- 
position of  forage  plants.  On  the  other  hand,  cultivation,  irrigation  or 
drouth,  liming,  the  application  of  phosphoric  acid  or  potash,  frequently 
have  a  marked  influence  in  this  respect.  Climatic  and  meteorological 
conditions  affect  the  mass  and  the  composition  of  the  forage  harvested. 
An  abundant  water  supply  causes  watery  and  coarse  forage  rich  in 
crude  fiber,  deficient  in  nutrients  and  lacking  in  palatability.  Prolonged 
drouth  causes  short,  woody  growth  and  deficiency  in  lime  and  phos- 
phates. Wet  meadows  favor  the  growth  of  sour  grasses.  The  latter  can 
be  avoided  by  proper  drainage. 

Meadoiv  grasses  contain  on  the  average  75  per  cent  of  water  and  25 
per  cent  of  dry  matter.  Of  the  latter,  3  per  cent  consists  of  crude 
protein,  0.8  per  cent  crude  fat,  13  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract,  6  per 
cent  crude  fiber  and  2  per  cent  mineral  matter  (0.23  lime,  CaO,  and 
0.15  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  P2O5).  Just  before  and  during  early 
bloom  orchard  grass  contains  0.8  per  cent  digestible  albumin;  full  bloom, 
same  as  timothy,  1.0  per  cent;  rye  grass  and  the  majority  of  meadow 
grasses,  during  bloom  1.3-1.5  per  cent;  grass  from  very  rich  pastures, 
up  to  2.3  per  cent.  The  starch  content  varies  in  a  similar  manner,  be- 
tween 10  and  14  per  cent. 

Advantages.  Meadow  grasses  are  relished  by  herbivora  and  are  well 
digested  and  wholesome.  They  have  a  high  dietetic  value  when  fed  green, 
in  the  succulent  young  stage,  especially  when  admixed  with  aromatic 
plants  of  the  same  description.  They  stimulate  the  appetite  and  digestion 
and  improve  the  "condition"  of  such  animals  in  particular  as  are  suffer- 
ing from  the  effects  of  overexertion  or  disease.  Meadow  grasses  are 
also  slightly  laxative.  They  are  therefore  of  dietetic  value  in  constipa- 
tion, especially  when  the  latter  is  of  chronic  nature,  since  they  stimu- 
late intestinal  muscular  activity.  Their  high  content  in  salts,  especially 
the  bone-forming  salts  (lime  and  phosphates)  makes  them  an  excellent 
remedy  for  replenishing  the  depleted  organism  of  animals  long  subjected 
to  unnatural  feeding  conditions,  or  a  preventive  or  even  curative  agent 
in  halisteresis  (salt  starvation),  especially  of  the  bones,  so-called  osteo- 
malacia and  rachitis  of  ruminants. 


46  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

Disadvantages. — Under  certain  conditions  the  feeding  of  fresh  meadow 
hay  may  lead  to  actual  disease,  especially  when  the  change  from  dry  feed- 
ing to  green  feeding  (soiling)  has  been  too  abrupt.  Among  the  disorders 
to  be  feared  are  tympanitis  or  bloat^,  indigestion,  colic,  abortion,  diarrhea. 
These  unfortunate  results  are  favored  by  dew  or  rain  (on  the  grass),  by 
"heating"  of  the  grass  before  feeding,  greedy  feeding  (especially  after 
partial  starvation),  and  by  drinking  water  immediately  after  feeding. 

By  regulating  these  conditions  serious  consequences  may  be  guarded 
against.  In  particular,  sudden  changes  of  feed  should  be  avoided.  This 
is  best  accomplished  by  mixing  the  green  forage  with  hay  or  chaffed 
straw  for  a  few  days,  or  by  feeding  dry  forage  immediately  before  giving 
the  animals  access  to  the  green.  The  green  forage  should  be  fed  as  fresh 
as  possible  and  never  more  than  24  hours  after  cutting.  When  stored, 
even  for  this  short  period,  it  should  be  spread  out  in  thin  layers  in  a  cool 
place,  best  on  a  raised  lattice-work,  to  permit  the  circulation  of  air  under 
and  through  it. 

The  following  plants,  when  fed  in  quantity  exert  an  unfavorable  in- 
fluence upon  the  secretion  of  milk  and  its  quality : 

(a)  Chives  {Allium  ursinum),  Sisymbrium  alliaria  s.  Alliaria  alliaria, 
germander  (Teucrium  scordium)  and  Thlaspi  arvense.  (All  but  the 
first  named  are  European  species.)  All  of  the  numerous  species  of 
Allium  (garlic,  the  common  onion,  the  wild  onion,  leek,  etc.). 

The  above  when  eaten  by  cows  impart  the  odor  of  onions  or  garlic  to 
milk  and  its  products. 

(&)  Wormwood  {Artemisia  absinthium),  ragweed  or  hogweed  {Am- 
brosia artimisiafolia),  hedge  hyssop  {Gratiola  officinalis),  and  tansy 
{Tanacetum  vidgare)  impart  a  bitter  taste  to  milk. 

{c)  Rape  {Brassica  napus)  and  mustard  (various  species  of  Sinapis) 
impart  a  flavor  of  mustard. 

(d)  True  chamomile  {Matricaria  chamomilla)  imparts  a  nauseous 
aromatic  taste. 

{e)  The  common  butterwort  {Pinguicida  vulgaris)  produces  slimy  or 
viscous  milk. 

(/)  Different  species  of  Euphorbia  (spurges)  and  madder  {Rubia 
tinctor)  cause  a  red  coloration  of  the  milk. 

{g)  The  sedges  {Cyperacecu)  and  scouring  rushes  and  horsetails 
(Equisetacese)  cause  a  diminution  of  the  milk  secretion  (excepting  the 
species  already  discussed). 

Practical  use. — The  meadow  grasses,  like  all  green  forages,  are  rich  in 
water  content  and  voluminous.  Therefore  unless  supplemented  by  other 
feed  they  are  not  adapted  to  feeding  horses,  as  they  tend  to  distend  the 
digestive  canal  unduly  and  interfere  with  normal  respiration.  In  addi- 
tion, the  meadow  grasses  are  not  sufficiently  nutritive.  Horses  subsist- 
ing upon  them  tire  out  and  sweat  easily.    On  the  other  hand,  the  meadow 

5The  gases,  or  mixture  of  gases,  which  cause  tympanitis,  consist  principally  of  C  O2  up  to 
80  percent,  methane  up  to  50   percent,   and  hydrogen. 


SWEET  GRASSES  47 

grasses  are  good  maintenance  or  supporting  feeds  for  mature  horses  as 
well  as  for  horses  two  or  three  years  of  age ;  they  produce  a  rounded  out, 
smooth,  thrifty  appearance.  The  ration  is  80  to  100  lbs.  per  day.  All 
horses  do  well  on  small  quantities  admixed  with  other  feeding  stuffs.  The 
amount  to  be  fed  depends  upon  the  character  of  work  performed  by  the 
animal.  Care  should  be  observed  at  all  times  in  changing  from  one  kind 
of  forage  to  another. 

For  ruminants  the  green  meadow  grasses  are  an  excellent  forage 
under  the  most  varied  conditions,  whether  intended  either  for  mere  main- 
tenance rations  or  for  active  production.  Mature  cattle  require  1-00  to 
160  lbs.  per  day,  sheep  8  to  15  lbs.  One  hectare  (2}^  acres)  of  the  best 
quality  bottom  land  pasture  will  support  three  cows,  whereas  the  same 
area  on  poor  soil  will  hardly  suffice  to  support  one. 

The  meadow  grasses  are  not  suitable  as  exclusive  feed  for  swine.  As  a 
main  ration,  supplem.ented  with  some  other  feed,  they  are  generally  given 
to  growing  stock  hogs,  and  as  a  rule  with  good  results.  As  a  supple- 
mentary feed  they  are  excellent  for  swine  in  all  conditions.  Chaffing 
and  cooking  or  steaming  is  advantageous. 

The  pasturing  of  meadows  has  a  chemical  as  well  as  a  botanical  effect  on  plant 
growth  as  compared  with  that  of  meadows  not  pastured. 

Various  herbaceous  plants,  especially  most  species  of  clovers,  are  injured  by  the 
frequently  repeated  removal  of  their  leaves  and  stems,  gradually  dying  out  and 
giving  place  to  other  species.  Since  the  metabolic  processes  of  plant  life  take  place 
principally  or  entirely  in  the  leaves  (and  all  chlorophyl-bearing  parts),  their  fre- 
quent removal  prevents  the  full  utilization  of  sunlight  and  heat  as  compared  with 
plants  that  are  deprived  of  these  parts  for  organs)  by  cutting  only  two  or  three 
times  during  the  season.  The  latter  have  more  time  to  develop  "assimilating  sur- 
faces." This  is  the  reason  or  explanation  of  the  fact  that  the  product  from  pas- 
tured meadows  as  measured  in  terms  of  total  dry  matter  is  reduced  about  33  percent 
by  the  thorough  and  frequent  removal  of  the  leaves  and  green  stems  of  the  plants. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  total  weight  of  the  green  forage  obtained  is  in  excess  of 
that  obtained  under  other  conditions,  because  of  the  richer  water  content  of  the 
young  growth.  Pasture  grass  furthermore  differs  from  "harvested"  grass  in  its 
greater  content  of  mineral  matter. 

Pasture  grass  in  general  has  a  high  water  content  (83  percent).  The  dry  matter 
is  rich  in  crude  proteids,  the  latter  including  large  amounts  of  nonalbuminous  nitro- 
gen-containing substances  (amids).  The  crude  fiber  content  is  low  and  the  fiber 
not  woody.     Lime  and  phosphoric  acid  are  present  in  relatively  large  amounts. 

Mowed  or  harvested  meadow  grass  is  rich  in  nitrogen-free  extract  and  crude 
fiber  and  comparatively  poor  in  crude  protein. 

The  cultivated  field  grasses  (rye  grass,  timothy,  orchard  grass  and  fes- 
cue, and  also  the  millets  and  maba  or  Setaria  italica)  produce  a  less  palat- 
able (but  equally  nutritious)  feed  than  the  meadow  grasses. 

Green  rye,  oats,  wheat  and  barley  are  sometimes  used  as  green  feeds. 
Rye  and  wheat  are  cut  before  the  appearance  of  the  heads,  barley  (on 
account  of  the  objectionalle  awns^)  is  cut  at  a  still  earlier  stage.     Oats 

"Barley  should  therefore,  if  possible,  be  cut  before  the  development  of  the  awns,  because 
the  latter,  according  to  investigations  of  Johne,  Bostroem  and  others,  are  frequently  the  means 
of  conveying  the  infection  of  Actinomyces  bovis.  Their  peculiar  structure  makes  these  awns 
an  ideal  inoculating  needle.  They  pierce  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  tongue,  cheeks,  pharynx 
and  esophagus  and  introduce  the  fungus  in  question  into  the  tissues.  Infection  of_  this 
character  is  most  common  in  cattle  and  appears  sporadically,  or  on  rarer  occasions  enzootically 
(Western  Prussia,  Upper  Palatinate,  etc.,  also  Western  and  Southwestern  States  of  the 
U.  S.).  It  most  frequently  attacks  the  maxillary  bones  and  is  then  popularly  known  as 
lumpy  jaw. 


48  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

may  be  cut  at  any  time.  They  equal  the  sweet  grasses  in  nutrient  value 
but  not  in  palatability.  These  forages  are  liable  to  cause  tympanitis  and 
should  therefore  be  mixed  with  chaffed  straw.  Green  Indian  corn  is 
not  dangerous  in  this  respect.  It  is  an  excellent  supplementary  feed  for 
cows  in  milk,  and  is  usually  fed  mixed  with  chaffed  straw  and  oil  cake. 
The  best  time  for  cutting  is  immediately  before  or  during  bloom.     It  is 


Fig.   25.      Hybrid   or   bastard   clover    {Trifo- 
Hum  hybridum).      (Natural  size.) 


Fig.  26.  Nonesuch  {Medicago  lupulina). 
a,  Flower;  b,  ovary;  c,  partly  developed  ovary; 
d,  pod;   e,  seed   (magnified). 


then  still  succulent  and  soft  and  characterized  by  a  high  sugar  content 
(4.6  percent).  Among  the  different  varieties  of  Indian  corn  the  earlier 
maturing  ones  (Bavarian,  Italian  and  Hungarian)  are  rather  more  nutri- 
tious, less  woody  and  more  palatable,  contain  0.6  percent  digestible  al- 
bumen and  possess  a  9.1  percent  starch  value,  as  compared  with  Ameri- 
can "horse  com"  with  0.3  percent  digestible  albumen  and  a  starch  value 
of  7.3  per  cent.     American  sweet  corn  probably  has  qualities  similar  to 


CLOVERS  AND  LEGUMES  49 

the  first-named  varieties.  Henry  and  Morrison  (Feeds  and  Feeding,  16th 
edition,  1916)  give  the  following  analyses :  Flint  corn  fodder  in  milk : 
Dry  matter,  15.0  per  cent;  crude  protein,  0.9  per  cent;  starch,  8.9  per 
cent.  Sweet  corn  fodder,  roasting-ear  stage  or  later:  Dry  matter,  20.3 
per  cent;  crude  protein,  1.2  per  cent;  starch,  12.0  per  cent.  They  have 
the  fat  value  0.4  per  cent.,  and  practically  the  same  nutritive  ratio, 
1 :10.9  and  1 :10.8  respectively. 

Sorghum   (Sorghum  saccharatum)   furnishes  the  source  of  a  forage 
resembling  that  of  Indian  corn  but  with  less  coarse  stems  and  higher 


Fig.    27.      Lady's    finger    or    kidney    vetch        Fig.    28.     Melilot    {melilotus   officinalis). 
{Anthyllis  imlneraria) . 

sugar  content.  Under  favorable  conditions  several  cuttings  can  be  made. 
When  fed  in  the  early  stages  of  growth  violent  poisoning  has  been  ob- 
served to  follow  (prussic  acid).  This  danger  does  not  attend  the  feed- 
ing of  the  mature  plant.  The  digestible  albumen  centent  is  0.7  per  cent, 
starch  value,  8.1  per  cent. 

The  most  important  species  of  clover  are:  First  and  above  all,  red 
clover  (Tri folium  prafense)  ;  white  clover  (T.  repens),  crimson  or  car- 
nation clover  {T.  incarnatum,  Italian  species),  bastard  hybrid  or  Swed- 
ish clover  (r.  hybridum,  Fig.  25),  to  which  should  be  added  several 
other  species  of  Leguminosse,  nonesuch   (Medicago  lupulina,  Fig.  26), 


so  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

kidney  vetch  or  lady's  finger  (Anthyllis  vulneraria,  Fig.  27),  melilot 
{Melilotus  officinalis,  Fig.  28),  esparcet  (Onobrychis  sativa,  Fig.  29), 
serradella  (Ornithopus  sativus),  lupines  {Lupinus  luteus,  L.  alhus,  L. 
angustifolius),  field  vetch  {Vicia  sativa),  sand  vetch  (F.  villosa  and  its 
varieties),  sow  bean  {V.  faha)  and  field  pea  (Pisum  sativum). 

The  nutritive  value  and  digestibility    (excepting  crude  fiber)   of  the 
foregoing  Leguminosse  are  higher  than  in  the  meadow  grasses.     The 


Fig.  29.     Esparcet   {Onobrychis  sativa). 

digestible  albumen  content  is  1.3  to  1.9  per  cent,  the  starch  value  7.5  to 
10  per  cent.  The  dietetic  effect  on  the  digestive  apparatus  is  somewhat 
less  favorable  than  that  of  the  meadow  grasses,  and  their  objectional 
characters  are  more  pronounced  (tympanitis,  colic,  abortion,  diarrhea, 
cerebral  effects).  The  precautions  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
feeding  of  the  meadow  grasses  should  therefore  be  observed  in  connec- 
tion with  the  clovers  and  other  Leguminosae  with  redoubled  vigilance. 
Young,  rank-growing  clover  in  particular  is  frequently  the  cause  of 
violent  and  even  fatal  bloating. 


CLOVERS  AND  LEGUMES  51 

The  formation  of  feed  balls  has  been  observed  following  the  ingestion 
of  wilted  clover.  Overfeeding  with  dry,  woody  clover,  sow  beans,  field 
vetches  or  field  peas  may  also  be  followed  by  serious  consequences,  espe- 
cially when  animals  have  not  been  accustomed  to  them.  Red  clover  and 
alfalfa  or  lucerne,  in  the  order  named,  are  considered  most  dangerous  in 
this  respect  and  have  the  additional  objection  that  they  occasionally  cause 
eczematous  eruptions  on  the  inside  of  the  thighs  in  horses.  Dammann 
states  that  vetches  fed  to  horses  in  large  quantity  may  cause  wheezing 
and  hard  breathing  (heaves)  and  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  trunk. 
Again,  melilot  is  rich  in  coumarin  before  blossom  and  should  not  be  fed 
to  sheep  in  quantities  exceeding  one-half  normal  rations,  and  not  exceed- 
ing one-third  normal  ration  for  other  animals.  Hybrid  clover,  fed  to 
horses,  has  been  known  to  produce  partial  necrosis  of  the  buccal  mucous 
membrane,  the  conjunctiva,  the  white  areas  of  the  skin  of  the  head  and 
feet,  and  in  less  frequent  cases  hemorrhagic  enteritis  and  colic.  When 
fed  in  conjunction  with  lupines  it  has  caused  icterus,  stupor,  tottering 
gait,  bloody  urine,  necrosis  of  small  areas  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  tongue,  and  death.  The  rate  of  mortahty  may  reach  50  per  cent. 
Cattle  remain  unaffected  even  where  hybrid  clover  produced  serious  ill- 
ness in  horses.  The  inflammatory  disturbances  following  the  ingestion  of 
hybrid  clover  were  formerly  believed  to  be  due  to  parasitic  infection  of 
the  food  in  question,  as  in  case  of  alfalfa  exanthema.  More  recently  the 
cause  is  looked  for  in  the  photodynamic  substances  contained  in  these 
plants.  It  is  possible  also  that  these  feeding  exanthemata  are  anaphylactic 
phenomena,  caused  by  the  absorption  of  undigested  albumen.  This  leads 
at  first  to  sensitization  (the  formation  of  proteolytic  antibodies)  and 
after  repeated  ingestion  is  followed  by  anaphylaxis  (feeding  exanthema). 

Recently  Grammlich  has  reported  mass  affections  following  clover- 
feeding  (so-called  clover  disease).  During  the  summer  season  69  horses 
became  affected,  of  which  31  died.  The  disease  made  its  appearance 
following  pasturing  on  rank-growing  meadows  (red  and  white  clover) 
as  well  as  after  soiling  with  green  clover,  and  could  be  reproduced  ex- 
perimentally. The  symptoms  were  inflammation  of  the  light-colored 
areas  of  the  skin  of  the  head  and  feet,  exhaustion,  swaying  walk,  symp- 
toms of  depression  or  raving,  icterus,  vesicles  and  ulcers  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth  and,  in  severe  cases,  accelerated  pulse,  constipa- 
tion and  death.  Postmortem  examination  revealed  icterus,  spotted  in- 
flammatory areas  in  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines, especially  the  large  intestine,  parenchymatous  inflammation  of  the 
heart  and  liver,  cloudy  swelling  of  the  kidneys,  sometimes  cystitis.  The 
treatment  consisted  in  withdrawal  of  the  objectional  feed,  rest,  saline 
purgatives,  oatmeal  soup,  and  symptomatic  treatment.  Hay  made  from 
these  forage  plants  seems  to  be  harmless. 

To  prevent  the  unpleasant  tympanitic  action  of  clover  and  alfalfa 
they  may  be  mixed  with  grass  (Italian  rye  grass)  or  better,  with  aro- 
matic herbs  (yarrow,  caraway  or  gum  succory).    Where  tympanitis  is  of 


2  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

common  occurrence  it  is  advisable  to  sow  caraway  (carum  carvi),  8  to 
10  lbs.  to  the  hectare  (3  to  4  lbs.  to  the  acre)  with  the  clover  seed. 
(Probably  not  practicable  in  the  United  States. — Translator.)  Since 
meadow  caraway  is  a  bienniel  plant,  it  usually  lasts  just  as  long  as  the 
clover,  and  is  a  good  forage  plant. 

The  lupines,  which,  when  dried,  frequently  cause  serious  losses  among 
sheep,   are   attended   with   little   danger   when   fed   green    (Dammann). 


Fig.   30.     Alfalfa  or  lucerne   (Medicago  sativd). 

While  the  Leguminosag  in  general  are  greedily  eaten  by  all  herbivora,  the 
lupines,  on  account  of  their  bitter  taste,  are  not  relished  at  first.  How- 
ever, sheep  soon  become  accustomed  to  them,  but  not  so  with  horses  and 
cattle.  At  the  beginning  of  the  blossom  period  the  lupines  contain  1.1 
per  cent  and  at  the  end  of  this  period  0.8  per  cent  of  digestible  albumen 
and  5.9  to  7.1  per  cent,  respectively,  starch  value. 

The  wood  chickling  vetch  (Lathyrus  Sylvester)  makes  good  crops  in 
poor  soil  and  at  high  altitudes,  may  be  cut  twice  and  makes  a  hay  similar 
to  that  of  alfalfa  in  nutritive  value.    The  seeds  of  all  species  of  Lathyrus, 


OTHER  GREEN  FORAGE 


S3 


however,  contain  an  active  poison  and  should  therefore  be  completely  re- 
moved, with  the  pods,  before  feeding.  The  wood  chickling  vetch  should 
be  cut  before  or  during  early  blossom  time, 

Spurry  (Spergula  arvensis,  Fig.  31)  produces  a  feed  for  milk  cows 
and  sheep  in  wide  use.  Its  nutritive  value  corresponds  approximately 
to  that  of  the  meadow  grasses  (1,0  per  cent  digestibe  albumen  and  9.6 
per  cent  starch  value).  It  is  a  notable  fact  that  this  forage  has  little 
tendency  to  cause  bloat. 

Buckwheat  (Polygonum  fagopyrum,  Fig.  32)  has  a  nutritive  value 
similar  to  that  of  meadow  grass  (1.1  per  cent  digestible  albumen,  8.1 
per  cent  starch  value).     Its  agricultural  value  lies  in  the  fact  that,  like 


Fig.    31.  '  Spurry    {Spergula   arvensis). 


Fig.   32.     Buckwheat    {Polygonum  fagopyrum). 


the  lupine,  it  thrives  on  sandy  soil  on  which  clover  will  not  do  well.  If 
fed  out  of  doors  to  white  sheep,  or  to  sheep  with  white  markings,  to 
swine  of  the  same  description,  to  white  mice  or  to  guinea-pigs,  during 
bright  or  sunshiny  weather,  it  causes  fagopyrism  or  so-called  buckwheat 
disease.  Horses  and  cattle  are  more  rarely  affected.  The  disease  is 
characterized  by  a  dermatitis,  especially  in  the  region  of  the  head,  face, 
eyelids  and  ears  (so-called  head  erysipelas).  This  may  be  accompanied 
by  an  affection  of  the  brain  (inflammation  in  sheep)  with  symptoms  of 
fright,  restlessness,  raving,  stupor  and  staggering,  occasionally  accelerated 
respiration,  weak  heart  action,  icterus  (hematogenic  icterus)  and  hema- 
turia. If  the  animals  are  kept  in  the  stable,  or  on  pasture  during  cloudy 
weather,  or  if  of  a  black  color  or  darkened  by  adhering  dirt,  or  artifi- 
cially colored  dark,  the  disease  will,  as  a  rule,  not  develop.  Breiten- 
reiter  reports  exceptional  cases.  Affected  animals  recover  if  they  are 
protected  from  bright  light  (e.  g.,  by  stabling). 


54  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

Contrary  to  the  negative  results  Obtained  by  Bichelmaier  and  Hilz,  the 
seed  hulls  of  buckwheat  contain  a  fluorescent  body  (fluorophyll-Koefeld) 
extractable  with  alcohol,  ether  and  chloroform,  which  causes  afllections 
of  the  gastrointestinal  mucosa,  swelling  of  the  liver  and  kidneys  and 
necrobiotic  changes  in  the  leucocytes.  In  white  colored  animals  it  causes 
affections  of  the  skin  in  the  areas  exposed  to  the  light. 

To  prevent  fagopyrism  white  sheep  and  swine  should  be  permitted  on 
buckwheat  pasture  on  cloudy  days  only  and  fed  in  rhe  stable  on  bright, 
sunny  days,  and  furthermore,  not  exposed  to  bright  sunshine  for  a  week 
after  cessation  of  buckwheat  feeding.  Affected  animals  should  be  put 
under  shelter  at  once,  or  kept  in  shady  places.  The  harmful  action  of 
buckwheat  may  be  held  in  check  to  some  extent  by  simultaneous  seeding 
with  millet,  white  mustard  (Sinapis  alba)  or  summer  rape,  and  feedmg 
the  mixture. 

Mustard  is  frequently  fed  alone,  to  milk  cows,  and  is  said  to  exert  a 
favorable  influence  on  milk  secretion.  It  may  also  be  fed  to  young  cattle 
and  to  sheep.  This  forage  must  be  fed  between  the  time  of  beginning 
bloom  and  the  formation  of  the  seed  pods,  not  later,  on  account  of  the 
accumulation  of  oil  of  mustard  in  the  seeds.  Mustard  is  usually  harm- 
less before  bloom.  It  has  frequently  been  asserted  that  feeding  in  later 
stages  causes  serious  intestinal  inflammations,  but  this  seems  improbable. 

Winter  rape  {Brassica  napus)  and  common  turnips  {Brassico  rapa)  af- 
ford large  crops  in  the  fall  of  the  year  or  in  favorable  spring  weather.  As 
a  soiling  crop  they  should  be  cut  not  later  than  the  first  appearance  of 
bloom  and  fed  with  chaffed  straw,  thus  serving  as  a  transition  feed  for 
soiling.  Rape  fields  are  also  used  as  pasture  for  sheep,  after  the  main 
crop  has  been  removed.  The  finer  breeds  of  wool  sheep  should  receive 
dry  forage  in  addition.  Green  rape  has  a  favorable  influence  on  the 
secretion  of  milk,  but  the  quantity  fed  shoult  be  kept  within  reason.  Ex- 
cessive rations  may  cause  diarrhea,  even  gastroenteritis,  nephritis  and 
death.  To  what  extent  influences  foreign  to  the  rape  itself  are  con- 
cerned in  producing  the  imfavorable  effects  following  the  feeding  of  this 
plant  in  large  quantities  is  as  yet  an  open  question.  Among  the  agencies 
suspected  are  Polydesmus  exitiosus,  Peronospora  parasitica  (rape  mold), 
white  blister  rust  {Cystopus  candidus),  sclerotioides  disease  of  rape 
{Peziza  schlerotioides) ,  caterpillars  and  butterflies,  etc.  Young  animals 
in  particular  frequently  experience  ill  effects  from  feeding  on  rape.  The 
injurious  effects  of  rape  may  be  avoided  to  some  extent  or  entirely  pre- 
vented by  simultaneously  sowing  of  rye,  vetches,  Italian  rye  grass,  etc., 
with  the  rape. 

According  to  Craig,  green  rape  is  well  adapted  for  fattening  swine. 
In  the  United  States  rape  pasture  is  preferred  to  red  clover  for  swine. 

Beet  leaves  also  constitute  a  good  soiling  crop,  especially  for  cattle 
and  swine  (mangel  and  sugar  beet).  In  this  connection  should  be  men- 
tioned the  leaves  of  cabbage  and  of  the  carrot,  of  kohlrabi  (turnip  cab- 
bage) and  of  late  fall  turnips.    The  leaves  of  beets  and  turnips  are  rather 


OTHER  GREEN  FORAGE  55 

watery  but  contain  large  amounts  of  vegetable  acid  salts,  especially  those 
of  oxalic  acid,  and  comparatively  little  crude  fiber.  The  oxalic  acid  con- 
tent may  amount  to  3.5  per  cent  of  the  entire  dry  matter.  Only  half  of 
this  is  in  the  form  of  oxalate  of  lime.  The  nitrogen  present  is,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  in  the  form  of  amid  compounds  and  nitrate  of  potash. 
On  account  of  this  rich  content  of  oxalic  acid  and  saltpeter,  together 
with  the  bacteria-infected  soil  particles  that  are  always  present  on  beet 
and  turnip  leaves,  this  kind  of  forage,  if  fed  in  quantity,  often  causes 
affections  of  the  kidneys  and  of  the  heart  (oxalic  acid  and  saltpeter 
poisoning).  The  soft  and  at  times  fluid  character  of  the  intestinal  dis- 
charges of  cattle  resulting  from  these  feeds  interferes  seriously  with  the 
production  of  sanitary  milk.  To  prevent  the  laxative  action  of  these 
feeds  and  the  toxic  effects  of  the  oxalic  acid,  prepared  chalk  (about  3 
ounces  to  200  lbs.  of  leaves)  may  be  added  before  feeding.  A  better  prac- 
tice, however,  is  to  observe  moderation  in  feeding  beet  leaves  and  to 
supplement  them  with  roughage.  Cattle  receive  40  lbs,  of  beet  leaves 
per  day,  or  100  lbs.,  if  the  tops  of  the  root  are  included  (per  1,000  lbs. 
live  weight). 

Beet  leaves  do  not  constitute  a  complete  ration  and  should  not  be  fed 
exclusively  under  any  circumstances.  Since  they  are  available  in  large 
quantities  during  beet  harvest,  it  is  usually  necessary,  in  order  to  save 
them,  to  ensilage  or  dry  them.  Although  ensilaging  causes  the  loss  of  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  water-soluble  oxalic  acid,  it  is  still  necessary 
to  observe  the  precautions  prescribed  for  feeding  the  fresh  leaves.  Ac- 
cording to  Hussmann,  cows  take  up  to  9  lbs.  of  the  dried  leaves  per 
1,000  lbs.  weight,  per  day,  and  do  well.  They  are  suitable  substitutes 
for  second  crop  or  aftermath  grasses  and  for  clover  hay.  The  quality  of 
the  milk  in  cows  does  not  suffer. 

Chicory  leaves.  In  the  sugar  beet  regions  of  Germany  chicory 
(Cichorium  intybus)  is  extensively  cultivated  as  a  substitute  for  coffee, 
and  the  tops  of  the  plants  are  used  as  cattle  feed.  In  England  this  plant 
is  cultivated  to  furnish  pasturage  for  sheep  and  in  France  it  is  cultivated 
as  a  regular  forage  plant.  Two  to  three  cuttings  may  be  made  and  one 
acre  will  yield  from  8  to  12  tons  of  green  feed.  In  general,  animals  eat 
the  leaves  of  this  plant  greedily,  digest  it  well  and  thrive  upon  it.  Slightly 
wilted  fall  cuttings  average  54  per  cent  dry  matter,  9  per  cent  crude  pro- 
tein, 2.3  per  cent  crude  fat,  25  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract,  8  per  cent 
crude  fiber  and  9.5  per  cent  mineral  matter.  Oppermann  reports  cases 
of  poisoning  from  chicory  leaves.  The  symptoms  were  inflammation  of 
the  mouth,  suppressed  appetite,  rumination  and  gastrointestinal  peristal- 
sis, swaying  walk.  Treatment  with  veratrin  or  veratrum  album  (2j^  gr.) 
brought  about  recovery. 

Since  it  is  well  known  that  chicory  is  subject  to  attack  from  rust  fungi 
(Puccinia  compositarum),  Peronospora  gangliformis,  Pezisa  scleroti- 
oides,  etc.,  and  since  the  plant  itself  is  known  to  be  a  palatable  and  agree- 
able feeding  stuff,  the  suspicion  arises  that  the  intoxications  observed  by 


56  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

Oppermann  were  due  to  parastic  infection  or  contamination  of  the  chic- 
ory rather  than  to  the  plant  itself. 

According  to  Schulz,  continued  use  of  chicory  "coffee"  causes  hem- 
orrhoids and  varicose  veins  as  a  result  of  loss  of  tonus  of  the  blood 
vessels. 

To  avoid  poisoning  it  is  suggested  that  changes  in  feed  be  made  gradu- 
ally and  that  not  more  than  60  lbs.  of  chicory  be  given  per  1,000  lbs. 
live  weight. 

In  recent  years  comfrey  (Symphytum  asperrimum  and  several  other 
species,  S.  officinale,  etc.)  have  been  cultivated  as  soiling  crops,  espe- 
cially for  swine.  These  are  oriental  herbs,  some  of  them  naturalized  in 
the  Middle  States.  They  are  very  succulent,  contain  little  crude  fiber,  are 
rich  in  protein,  and  are  usually  greedily  eaten  by  swine,  although  cattle 
care  less  for  them  on  account  of  their  rough  hairy  character.  The  crude 
protein  content  is  9.5  per  cent,  starch  value  37.5  per  cent.  Comfrey  is 
also  used  as  feed  for  horses,  goats,  rabbits,  geese  and  ducks.  The  plant 
grows  well  under  a  variety  of  indifferent  conditions,  is  not  easily  extermi- 
nated and  yields  well. 

Green  potato  tops,  as  a  rule,  are  used  as  forage  only  in  times  of  famine.  Their 
use  as  forage  is  not  wholly  unattended  with  danger,  especially  when  fed  in  the  early 
stages  of  growth  or  when  set  with  fruit.  Violent  cases  of  poisoning  and  even 
fatalities  have  occurred  among  cattle  and  swine  under  these  conditions  (solanin 
poisoning).  The  symptoms,  in  cattle,  are  colic,  tympanitis,  diarrhea,  cessation  of 
milk  secretion,  convulsions,  throbbing  heart  action,  paralysis,  and  cutaneous  affec- 
tions such  as  eczema  of  the  limbs,  udder,  scrotom,  perineum  (Johne,  Moebius, 
Roemer,  Michaelis)  ;  in  pigs,  vomiting,  tympanitis,  convulsions  and  paralysis.  Dry- 
ing seems  to  reduce  the  toxicity  of  potato  tops,  but  their  palatability  also  suffers. 
The  best  way  to  utilize  this  material  is  to  subject  it  to  fermentation  as  in  the  prep- 
aration of  "brown  hay"  (p.  23),  Klappmeyers  method  of  haymaking'  and  ensilaging. 
Mixed  with  chaffed  hay  or  straw,  it  is  well  liked  by  cattle  and  consumed  without 
detriment.  Fed  in  conjunction  with  ensilaged  beet  leaves,  it  has  the  advantage 
of  neutralizing  the  laxative  effects  of  the  latter.  Recently  it  has  been  recommended 
to  chaflf  the  potato  tops,  adding  4  ounces  of  common  salt  to  100  lbs.  of  the  chaff, 
and  steaming.  The  water  is  drained  off  before  feeding.  Thus  prepared  it  is 
wholesome  and  satisfying  and  cows  like  it.  Formerly  the  susceptibility  of  potato 
tops  to  attack  by  disease  (Phytophthora  and  Polydesmus)  made  their  use  as  forage 
objectionable,  but  this  is  of  comparatively  little  moment  today  when  disease-resisting 
varieties  of  potatoes  njay  be  had.  The  tops  of  late  potatoes  (which  are  more 
productive  and  therefore  more  and  more  extensively  cultivated  in  preference  to  the 
earlier  varieties)  remain  green  until  the  tubers  are  ready  for  harvest.  The  tuber 
and  forage  crops  may  therefore  be  harvested  simultaneously,  which  is  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  former. 

Thistles. — Various  species  of  thistle,  especially  the  common  thistle  (Cirsiunt 
arvense.  s.  Cnicus  arvense — Canada  thistle,  cursed  thistle,  (the  common  thistle  of 
Europe)  are  frequently  used  as  accessory  feed  for  horses,  swine  and  ruminants. 
They  are  usually  chaffed  before  feeding. 

Prickly  dyer's  broom  (Ulex  Europceus)  is  used  in  some  sections  as  a  winter  soil- 
ing crop.^  On  account  of  its  prickly  nature,  it  is  chaffed  before  feeding  and  then 
crushed  in  a  potato  or  grain  crushing  machine,  or  in  a  machine  especially  con- 
structed for  the  purpose.  Since  the  seeds  of  dyer's  broom  are  reputed  to  be  pois- 
onous, it  should  be  fed  before  the  seed  stage. 

Fungi  (mushrooms, _  etc.) — Nontoxic  fungi  not  in  demand  for  human  food  are 
excellent  feed  for  swine.  In  nutrient  value  they  are  superior  to  potatoes.  They 
may  also  be  fed  to  poultry,  rabbits  and  fishes.  All  edible  fungi  do  not,  however, 
agree  with  animals.     According  to  Morel,  Armillaria  mellea    (edible)    is  toxic  for 


HAY  57 

animals.  Since  fungi  spoil  easily,  care  should  be  exercised  to  avoid  feeding  decom- 
posed material. 

When  fed  to  swine,  cattle  or  poultry,  fungi  should  be  chopped  up,  cooked  and 
mixed  with  bran.  They  may  also  be  dried,  crushed,  and  fed  mixed  with  crushed 
potatoes. 

In  some  sections  of  Germany  the  flocks  of  sheep  are  driven  to  the  pine  forests 
every  fall  and  "masted"  on  the  fungi  which  grow  there  in  abundance.  No  cases  of 
poisoning  have  ever  been  reported  as  resulting  from  this  practice. 

According  to  Dittrich,  the  polato  puflfball  (Scleroderma  vulgare)  is  a  good  feed 
for  cattle  and  swine,  and  the  false  truffle  for  goats.  The  "fly  toadstool"  (Agaricus 
muscarius),  reputed  as  poisonous,  is  said  to  be  greedily  eaten  by  sheep,  without 
harmful  results.  The  term  "cow  toadstool,"  common  in  Germany,  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  the  general  inclination  of  cattle  to  feed  upon  several  different  species 
of  these  fungi.  Dittrich  recommends  Paxillus,  Lactaria  (milk  fungi),  Russula, 
Clitocybc  (funnel  fungi),  the  medium-sized  species  of  Tricholoma  (excepting  the 
nauseous  smelling  T.  sulfurcvm) ,  the  large  scaly  Lepiota,  all  of  the  species  of 
Boletus  except  those  suitable  for  human  consumption  (yellow  boletus  or  B.  edulis) 
or  those  that  may  be  too  tough  or  woody  (Polyporus — the  corky,  shell-like  out- 
growths on  trees  and  decaying  logs),  the  Clavaria,  puffballs,  spiny  fungus,  etc. 
Toadstool  fungi  are  also  suitable  food  for  fishes.  Even  the  toxic  species,  according 
to  Knauthe,  may  be  fed  to  them  without  danger. 

Certain  fungi  that  are  toxic  for  man  may,  according  to  Dittrich,  be  fed  to  advan- 
tage to  animals,  e.g.,  the  reddish  brown  milk  toadstool  (Lactaritis  rtifus),  L.  tormi- 
nosus,  Russula  emetica,  and  even  the  devil  toadstool  (Bolerus  satanas),  Hypho- 
loiiia  fasciculare  alone  of  this  group,  on  account  of  its  bitter  taste,  is  not  a  suitable 
animal  feeding  stuff. 

II.    Roughage 

The  term  "roughage"  inckides  hay,  straw  and  chafif'. 

I.    Hay 

Hay  consists  of  grasses  or  Legtiminosse,  cut  and  dried  in  the  young, 
succulent  stage,  before  or  during  bloom.  After  blossom  these  plants  rap- 
idly become  woody,  less  digestible  and  less  nutritious.  It  is  therefore 
important  to  observe  the  proper  time  for  harvesting.  "Overripe"  hay  is 
of  inferior  value.    In  regard  to  hay  making  see  pages  19  and  23. 

Compared  with  green  feed  (soiling),  hay  has  less  nutrient  value 
(owing  to  increased  effort  necessary  in  mastication  and  digestion)  and 
exercises  a  less  favorable  dietetic  action,  even  though,  for  herbivora,  in 
itself,  it  is  easily  digestible,  wholesome  and  stimulating  to  the  digestive 
processes.  It  is,  in  fact,  an  indispensable  part  of  the  ration  for  herbi- 
vora when  the  latter  receive  slops,  pulps  and  root  crops.  According  to 
the  variety  of  plant  converted  into  hay,  we  distinguish,  grass  hay,  clover 
hay,  leguminous  hay,  leaf  hay,  twig  hay,  etc. 

a.    Meadow  Hay  and  Aftermath  Hay 

As  a  rule  meadow  hay  and  aftermath  hay  are  regarded  as  equal  in 
value.    The  second-crop  hay  (aftermath)  is  somewhat  richer  in  albumen 

Tin  America,  according  to  Henry  and  Morrison,  the  term  also  includes  corn  fodder  and 
silage.  Low  grade  milling  by-products,  such  as  oat  hulls,  ground  corn  cobs  and  peanut  hulls, 
are  also  roughages,  rather  than  concentrates,  for  thev  are  largely  fiber  and  furnish  little 
nutfiment.  Roots  are  watery  and  bulky  and  contain  relatively  little  nutriment  per  pound, 
yet  based  on  the  composition  of  the  dry  substance  they  are  more  like  concentrates  than  rough- 
ages, as  they  are  low  in  fiber.  They  are  really  watery  or  diluted  concentrates,  though  for 
convenience  they  are  included  under  fresh  green  roughages  in  appendix  Table  I.,  Henry  and 
Morrison,   Feeds  and    Feeding,    16th   ed.,    1916,   p.    10, 


58  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

and  fat  than  the  first-crop  or  regular  hay.  But  since  harvest  conditions 
(weather)  are  frequently  less  favorable  for  second-crop  hay,  it  is  not 
unusual  that  the  difference  in  quality  is  reversed  in  this  respect.  Second- 
crop  hay  may  be  recognized  by  the  usual  absence  of  flowering  parts  and 
the  presence  of  late  flowering  herbs  (Geranium,  Sanfuisorba,  Euphrasia, 
Briinella,  Heracleum,  Colchicum,  etc.,  and  in  the  United  States,  Ambrosia 
(rag  weed),  Alopecurus  and  corresponding  weeds  and  grasses. 

The  value  of  meadow  hay  and  second-crop  hay  depends  upon  their 
botanical  composition.  The  more  delicate  and  tender  or  the  less  woody 
the  sweet  grasses  are,  the  greater  their  value  for  hay.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  presence  of  any  of  the  many  species  of  sour  grasses  or  of  Molinia 
arriilea  (Europe),  a  sweet  or  true  grass  with  properties  of  the  sedges 
and  rushes,  or  an  admixture  of  scouring  rushes  or  horsetails  is  objec- 
tionable. The  sour  grasses,  provided  they  have  not  grown  on  soil  of  a 
saline  character  (seacoast)  when  fed  to  sheep  in  quantity  (admixed  with 
hay)  are  said  to  produce  anemia.  In  cattle  they  are  reputed  to  have  an 
unfavorable  efifect  on  the  digestive  functions,  the  general  condition,  and 
milk  secretion. 

According  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  sour  grasses  in  meadow 
hay  we  distinguish  (a)  sweet  and  (b)  sour  meadow  hay. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  different  varieties  of  hay  as  far  as 
the  important  nutrients  are  concerned  varies  between  a  2.5  and  6.5  per 
cent  digestible  albumen  content,  and  a  starch  value  of  19.0  to  40.5  per  cent. 

An  ordinary  chemical  analysis,  as  a  rule,  throws  little  light  upon  the 
real  value  of  any  particular  kind  of  hay.  Thus  A.  Mayer  found  that 
good  meadow  hay  (Poa  pratensis,  June  grass)  contained  6.5  per  cent 
digestible  albumen,  while  the  common  sedge  (Carex  vulgaris)  contained 
12.2  per  cent.  Their  actual  nutritive  value  is  just  the  reverse  of  what 
this  analysis  would  indicate.  Low-grade  hay  is  generally  poor  in  mineral 
matter  and  rich  in  crude  fiber,  good  hay  rich  in  mineral  matter.  Alpine 
hay  usually  has  a  high  fat  content  (2.1  per  cent). 

In  fudging  hay  it  is  not  sufficient  to  confine  the  examination  to  a  hand- 
ful removed  from  a  bale.  Many  samples  should  be  taken  and  a  number 
of  bales  opened  and  spread  out  to  view.  Adulterated  hay  may  often  be 
recognized  by  the  different  colored  contents  of  a  bale,  or  by  the  presence 
of  plants  of  different  origin,  e.  g.,  good  meadow  hay  mixed  with  sour 
grasses  or  mosses,  etc. 

The  value  of  hay  depends  upon  its  botanical  composition.  An  abun- 
dance of  Leguminosae  in  a  mixed  hay  and  the  absence  of  sour  grasses 
and  related  plants  is  an  indication  of  good  quality  and  high  value.  A 
botanical  analysis,  which  may  be  limited  to  the  identification  of  the  four 
groups — sweet  grasses,  Leguminosae,  sour  grasses  and  foreign  matter — 
provides  a  better  basis  for  the  judging  of  quality  and  value  than  a  chemi- 
cal determination  of  the  nutrients.  Packed  dried  leaves  should  be  placed 
in  warm  water  and  allowed  to  soften.  They  may  then  be  spread  out  and 
examined  and  their  identity  determined. 


HAY  59 

Following  the  botanical  examination  the  physical  characteristics  should 
be  noted.  Wittmack  has  suggested  the  following  outline  for  the  determi- 
nation of  the  value  of  hay  according  to  the  point  system : 

If  the  hay  contains — 

A.  Mostly  sour  grasses 1 

Moderate  amount  of  sour  grasses 2-5 

Sweet  grasses  only  or  nearly  so 2-10 

B.  Sweet  grasses  present,  mostly  of  the  third  rank  (cf.  p.  41) 1-5 

Much  grass  of  the  second  rank 6-10 

Almost  all  grasses  of  the  first  rank , 11-20 

C.  Clovers  or  other  good  herbs : 

None  present  or  few  only 1 

In  moderate  amount    2-4 

Many    5-8 

D.  Many  woody  stemmed  or  more  or  less  injurious  plants   (rushes, 

horsetails,  etc.)    1 

Moderate  amounts    2-3 

Less  than  moderate  amount  4-6 

E.  Cut  too  late 1 

Cut  a  little  too  late  2-5 

Cut  at  right  time 6-10 

F.  Poorly  harvested  or  stored,  dusty,  etc 1 

Affected  by  exposure  to  rain,  dusty  or  musty 2-5 

Properly  harvested  and  of  good  odor 6-10 

Total    

A  total  of     1  to  30  points  indicates  hay  of  the  third  class. 
A  total  of  31  to  50  points  indicates  hay  of  the  second  class. 
A  total  of  51  or  more  points  indicates  hay  of  the  first  class. 

Classes  1  and  2  are  considered  fit  for  storage,  class  3  only  in  case  noth- 
ing better  can  be  obtained,  and  provided  that  it  is  free  from  injurious 
properties  or  admixtures. 

Under  F  the  color  of  the  hay  should  receive  first  consideration.  Fresh, 
properly  harvested  hay  has  a  greenish  color,  the  shade  of  green  depend- 
ing upon  the  character  of  the  soil,  dark  green  indicating  rich  soil  as  the 
origin.  Alpine  hay  has  a  lighter  color  than  that  grown  in  valleys  or 
river  bottoms.  Exposure  to  rain  while  curing  produces  a  pale  or  yellow- 
ish color.    Old  hay  is  pale  grayish  green. 

Properly  harvested  and  carefully  stored  hay  has  a  pleasant  odor  re- 
sembling that  of  tea.  A  pronounced  fragrance  of  coumarin  (a  sub- 
stance of  vanilla-like  odor)  is  due  to  the  presence  of  spring  grass  (An- 
thoxanthum  odoratum),  melilot,  white  clover  and  simipar  plants.  Objec- 
tional  odors  are  sometimes  masked  by  the  intentional  admixture  of 
strong-smelUng  herbs.  The  degree  of  moisture  should  also  be  noted, 
and  tested  by  manipulation. 

Hay  originating  on  artificially  irrigated  meadozvs  is  usually  of  medium 


60  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

quality  and  conspicuously  pale  or  light  colored.  It  is  composed  mainly 
of  Lolium  perenne,  often  Phlem  pratense  and  Dactylis  glomerata  and 
little  or  no  clover.  It  is  said  to  be  inferior  in  nutritious  elements,  to 
affect  the  secretion  of  milk  unfavorably,  to  cause  diarrhea  in  lambs  and 
scorbutus  in  sheep  (Koenig).  There  is  no  doubt,  at  least,  that  hay  from 
irrigated  meadows  lacks  the  aroma  and  palatability  that  characterizes 
meadow  hay.  According  to  Friedlaender,  the  proteins  of  the  irrigated- 
meadow  hay  and  the  nitrogen- free  extract  of  the  ordinary  meadow  hay 
are  more  easily  digested  than  respective  nutrients  of  the  other  hay.  As  a 
rule  irrigated-meadow  hay  is  deficient  in  mineral  matter,  especially  the 
bone-forming  salts.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  no  question  that  the 
amount  and  proportion  of  these  constituents  may  be  materially  influenced 
by  fertility  conditions  and  by  regulation  of  the  irrigation  water  supply. 
In  general  it  would  be  advisable  to  supplement  rations  consisting  largely 
of  hay  from  irrigated  meadows,  with  liberal  allowances  of  salt  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  absent  aroma  and  as  a  stimulant  for  the  appetite  and 
digestion.  When  there  is  a  deficiency  of  lime  salt,  daily  doses  of  pre- 
pared chalk  not  exceeding  three  ounces  may  be  given. 

Light  colored  meadow  hay  consists  chiefly  of  long-stemmed  grasses  of  rank 
growth  rich  in  crude  fiber.  Aromatic  herbs  are  usually  absent  in  this  kind  of  hay. 
As  a  result  such  hay  is  less  palatable  and  not  so  well  liked  by  animals.  It  is  usually 
hay  of  medium  grade. 

So-called  Mielitz  hay,  well  liked  in  Berlin  for  feeding  horses,  consists 
principally  of  Glyceria  aqiiatica  (European  species)  and  PJmlaris  arun- 
dacecE  (Canary  grass — common  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  the  Middle 
States).  The  latter  species  is  much  inferior  to  the  former.  It  is  a 
coarse  feed,  yellowish  in  color  and  strawlike,  but  when  properly  har- 
vested makes  a  good  hay  of  medium  grade. 

So-called  Alpine  hay  (grown  in  the  mountainous  sections  of  Ger- 
many) is  a  hay  of  high  quality,  short  and  fine  stemmed,  leafy,  and  mixed 
with  aromatic  herbs.  Starch  value,  38.5  per  cent,  digestible  protein  6.4 
per  cent. 

Salt-marsh  hay  is  brownish  in  color  and  very  palatable  on  account  of 
its  high  salt  content.  It  is  classed  as  a  good  grade  of  hay  and  may  be 
recognized  by  the  species  of  which  it  is  composed,  Junciis  botnicus,  Tri- 
glochin  maritirnum,  Scirpus  maritimns,  Plantago  maritima^,  etc.  Starch 
value  is  about  30  per  cent,  digestible  protein  about  3  per  cent.  Such 
salt-marsh  hay  as  blue  joint  {Calamagrostis  canadensis) ,  cut  before  ma- 
turity equals  timothy  in  value^. 

A  thorough  examination  sometimes  requires  the  use  of  the  microscope 
in  addition  to  inspection  with  the  mere  naked  eye.  The  procedure  con- 
sists in  sprinkling  a  little  of  the  hay  on  a  sheet  of  paper.  The  fine, 
broken  material  thus  obtained  is  then  inspected  for  the  presence  of  seeds. 

"American  species. 

9Henry   and    Morrison,    Feeds   and    Feeding,    16th    edition,    1916. 


HAY  61 

This  will  give  valuable  information  as  to  the  time  of  cutting.  A  quan- 
tity of  the  "dust"  is  placed  in  a  watch  glass,  moistened  with  water  and  a 
few  drops  of  caustic  potash  solution  and  examined  under  a  coverglass 
with  both  a  low  and  a  high  power  lens.  Among  the  foreign  matter 
present  there  may  be  hay  mites  (Acarus  foenarius),  parasitic  fungi, 
molds,  dust,  mud  and  slime.  Of  the  parastic  fungi  there  should  be  men- 
tioned ergot  (blackish  hornlike  structures  1  to  2  cm.  long),  smut  (black- 
ish, sootlike  powder),  rust  (rust-colored  or  black  dustlike  heaps  or  stripes 
on  the  leaves  or  culms),  false  mildew  (whitish  to  gray-violet,  effaceable 
moldy  layers,  usually  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves),  true  mildew 
(grayish  white  coating  with  black  puncta),  Epichloe  (brownish  felt  sur- 
rounding the  culms  of  grasses),  leaf  spot  disease  (yellow,  reddish,  brown- 
ish spots  on  leaves,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  zones,  yellowish  or  whitish 
in  the  middle  from  drying,  often  with  very  minute  black  points),  etc. 
Special  note  should  be  made  of  the  presence  of  the  hairs  of  procession- 
ary  caterpillars  of  the  oak  {Cnethocampa  proccssionea),  and  those  of 
the  pine  (C.  pinivora),  the  hawthorne  spinner  (Porthesia  chrysorrhocea), 
etc.,  which  have  frequently  been  known  to  cause  severe  inflammation  of 
the  mouth  of  horses,  swelling  of  the  head  and  urticariform  eruptions. 

Hygienic  requirements  for  good  meadow  hay  are  that  it  consist  chiefly 
of  sweet  grasses  or  herbs  cut  before  bloom,  that  it  contain  few  if  any 
grasses  or  herbs  that  are  unpalatable,  noxious,  or  of  low  nutritive  value, 
that  it  be  properly  harvested,  have  a  fresh  or  bright  color,  pleasant 
aroma,  and  contain  no  admixtures  of  dusty,  earthy,  slimy  or  fungus 
particles. 

Fresh  hay  with  high  content  of  aromatic  herbs  (coumarin  and  An- 
tlwxanthum  odoratum,  etc.),  is  frequently  so  intensely  aromatic  that 
even  horses  (especially  in  close  stables)  are  affected  thereby.  A  sudden 
change  from  old  to  fresh  hay  has  frequently  caused  febrile  gastrointes- 
tinal catarrhs,  colic,  icterus,  depression,  dullness  and  even  coma,  dia- 
phoresis, etc.  The  causes  of  these  disturbances  have  not  yet  been  en- 
tirely explained.  Greedy  feeding,  imperfect  mastication  and  consquent 
imperfect  insalivation,  followed  by  disturbed  digestion,  increased  bac- 
terial activity,  the  formation  of  toxins  and  irritating  products  are  no 
doubt  in  part  responsible.  Possibly  the  morbid  processes  that  are  active 
in  these  conditions  could  be  looked  upon  as  a  form  of  hay  fever.  For- 
merly they  were  looked  upon  as  the  result  of  coumarin  poisoning,  a  view 
that  has  been  refuted  by  Froehner,  New  hay  is  still  relatively  rich  in 
water.  When  stored  it  sweats  and  becomes  heated,  that  is,  the  water  in 
the  cells  of  the  heavier  parts  of  the  plants  passes  out  by  diffusion,  and 
as  a  result  bacterial  activity  is  increased  and  excessive  heat  is  produced. 
The  water  gradually  evaporates  and  bacterial  activity  ceases.  This  entire 
process  takes  place  to  completion  in  the  course  of  4  to  8  weeks. 

If  hay  has  been  stored  too  green  or  too  wet  (rain  and  dew),  it  may 
become  heated  to  such  a  degree  that  spontaneous  combustion  occurs. 
This  applies  especially  to  second-crop  hay,  less  to  straw,  bran,  malt,  saw- 


62  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

dust,  etc.  Bacterial  fermentation  may  cause  a  temperature  of  from  140° 
to  158°  F.,  and  this,  followed  by  purely  chemical  processes  of  oxyda- 
tion,  may  be  increased  to  266°  F.  and  more.  The  latter  temperatures 
causes  charring  and,  attended  with  sufficient  oxygen  supply,  actual  igni- 
tion. (According  to  Henry  and  Morrison,  clover  hay,  according  to 
actual  tests,  wall  ignite  at  302°  to  392°  F.— Translator. )  Poorly  har- 
vested hay  may  be  prevented  from  overheating  by  the  application  of 
common  salt.  (Henry  and  Morrision  recommend  compacting  and  cover- 
ing with  other  material  when  hay  heats  to  a  dangerously  high  point  and 
the  taking  of  every  other  possible  precaution  to  cut  out  the  air — Trans- 
lator.) After  the  sweating  process  is  completed  the  injurious  after-effects 
mentioned  above  rarely  appear.  If  conditions  exist  that  make  it  necessary 
to  feed  fresh  hay,  the  change  should  be  made  gradually  (mixing  old  with 
the  new  hay),  or,  if  this  is  not  possible,  the  new  hay  should  be  chaffed 
with  straw  and  fed  sparingly. 

As  hay  becomes  older,  it  increases  in  dryness,  becomes  brittle,  is  easily  broken 
into  fine  particles  and  is  apt  to  become  dusty.  The  more  delicate  and  valuable  parts 
are  lost.  The  fresh  color  disappears,  palatability  is  reduced,  the  pleasant  aroma 
lost,  it  becomes  less  digestil)le  and  as  a  result  of  loss  of  proteids  is  less  nourishing. 
After  being  stored  for  one  or  two  years  hay  loses  its  stimulating  dietetic  action, 
and  owing  to  its  "dustiness"  may  produce  catarrh  of  the  respiratory  tract.  In  short, 
its  quality  suffers  and  its  value  as  a  feed  diminishes. 

Uses  of  the  different  varieties  of  hay.  The  finer  qualities  of  hay  are 
usually  preferred  for  feeding  sheep  and  young  stock,  the  coarser  varieties 
for  cattle  and  the  medium  sorts  for  horses.  Swine,  as  a  rule,  are  not 
fed  any  hay.  They  will  take  it  only  when  chaffed,  or  steamed,  or,  better, 
cooked.     They  do  not  utilize  it  profitably. 

Hay  alone  may  serve  as  a  maintenance  ration  for  herbivora,  but  it  is 
not  a  suitable  producing  ration  for  either  horses  or  cattle.  It  is  abso- 
lutely necessary,  however,  as  part  of  a  proper  ration  for  horses  and  cattle. 
Daily  rations  for  horses  should  include  4  to  12  pounds  of  hay,  the  larger 
rations  for  heavy  and  slow  work,  the  smaller  for  work  of  the  opposite 
character.  Cattle,  especially  milk  cows,  should  receive,  if  at  all  prac- 
ticable, 5  pounds  of  hay  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight.  Compared  with 
straw  and  other  substitutes  it  is  much  richer  in  lime  and  other  salts. 
Many  cows  are  fed  smaller  rations  of  hay,  but  this  is  poor  economy. 

Sweet  silage.  The  starch  value  of  this  feed  is  between  12  and  14  per 
cent.  Digestibility  is  high,  digestive  effort  comparatively  low.  Cattle 
usually  like  sweet  silage  or  soon  become  accustomed  to  it.  It  is  also  a 
wholesome  feed  for  pregnant  animals.  Sweet  silage  may  be  gradually 
substituted  for  the  hay  ration.  Fifteen  pounds  of  sweet  silage  may  be 
substituted  for  one-third  of  the  hay  ration,  22  pounds  for  half,  and  40 
to  45  pounds  for  the  entire  hay  ration.  Four  to  five  pounds  of  sweet 
silage  correspond  in  value  to  2  pounds  of  hay.  The  change  from  hay  to 
sweet  silage  should  be  made  gradually.  For  practical  purposes  60  pounds 
of  sweet  silage  and  12  pounds  of  hay  should  be  fed  per  1,000  pounds  live 
weight  and  a  milk  yield  of  2^^  gallons   (10  liters).     (In  regard  to  the 


CLOVER  HAY  63 

effect  of  sweet  silage  on  the  milk  secretion  see  p.  26).  Horses  also  like 
sweet  silage  and  digest  it  well.  Rations  may  consist  of  16  pounds  sweet 
silage  and  6  pounds  of  hay  with  2  pounds  of  oats  mixed  with  chaff  (cut 
straw)  per  day  for  a  work  horse.  Sweet  silage  for  swine  and  poultry 
should  be  made  from  young,  tender  growth,  rich  in  clover.  It  is  to  be 
fed  chaffed,  sprinkled  with  water  and  mixed  with  beets  or  cooked  pota- 
toes. 

Sour  silage.  (For  preparation  and  characteristics  see  p.  27.)  The 
digestible  protein  and  starch  value  of  sour  ensilage  made  of  grass  equal 
0.9  and  8.0,  potato  tops  0.3  and  8.0,  beet  leaves  0.7  and  8,  sugar  beet 
leaves  and  tops  0.2  and  9.5  per  cent  respectively.  Cattle  like  sour  silage, 
and  if  the  change  from  dry  feed  is  made  gradually  they  do  well  on  it. 
Dry  feed  must  be  given  as  supplementary  roughage.  When  first  given 
the  silage  is  very  laxative.  Horses  and  sheep  are  also  said  to  like  it. 
Daily  rations  for  cattle  may  be  as  high  as  30  to  40  pounds.  Milk  cows 
should  receive  this  feed  after  being  milked  and  not  during  milking  time. 
YearHngs  receive  20  to  40  pounds  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight;  fatten- 
ing steers  30  to  40  pounds  at  first,  later  20  to  36  pounds.  As  a  rule  silage 
is  not  fed  to  horses,  but  where  digestion  is  impaired  or  inactive  it  acts 
as  a  mild  laxative  (5  to  8  pounds  per  day).  Sheep  take  2  to  4  pounds 
per  day. 

b.    Clover  Hay,  Lupine  Hay,  etc. 

To  prevent  loss  of  nutrients,  palatability  and  tenderness,  clover  should 
be  cut  before  blossom.  Only  in  case  of  white,  crimson  and  hybrid  clover, 
serradella  and  esparcet,  would  it  be  profitable  to  cut  a  little  later. 

The  nutritive  value  of  clover  hay  is  somewhat  higher  than  that  of 
meadow  hay.  The  digestible  protein  content  and  starch  value  range 
between  4  to  7  and  18.5  to  35.5  per  cent  respectively.  From  a  hygienic 
standpoint  clover  liay,  as  an  exclusive  feed,  is  not  desirable.  Too  large 
rations  are  also  to  be  avoided,  especially  for  horses,  because  digestive 
derangements,  subacute  cerebritis  and  founder  may  result.  Sheep  also 
have  become  affected  with  subacute  cerebritis  after  feeding  liberally  on 
clover  hay  that  was  harvested  during  wet  weather  (Oppemiann).  Vetch 
hay,  which  is  reputed  to  be  a  good  vermifuge  for  ascarids,  and  to  be 
apt  to  cause  constipation,  is  most  dangerous  in  this  respect.  Red,  crim- 
son and  hybrid  clover  belong  to  the  same  class,  while  serradella  and 
spurge,  even  when  fed  in  large  quantities,  are  said  to  be  free  from  this 
objectionable  feature.  These  forages  are  all  excellent  part  rations  for 
milk  cows,  as  in  fact  for  all  cattle  and  for  horses,  in  amounts  equal  to 
one-eighth  of  the  hay  ration.  Colts  should  not  have  clover  hay  during 
the  first  year  but  should  be  given  good  meadow  hay. 

Special  care  must  be  observed  in  feeding  lupine  hay.  Lupines,  as 
already  mentioned,  are  rich  in  protein  and  thrive  on  poor,  sandy  soils, 
but  sometimes  they  contain  large  quantities  of  a  poisonous  principle, 
lupinotoxin  (icterogen  or  lupine  alkaloids — lupanin,  lupinin,  lupinidin — 
spartein,  oxylupanin),  which  may,  even  when  present  in  small  quantities, 


64  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

cause  violent  poisoning,  lupinosis,  in  sheep  and  horses. 

The  yellow  varieties  are  more  apt  to  be  dangerous  than  the  blue  or 
the  white.  According  to  American  authors  the  seeds  contain  the  largest 
amount  of  the  poison,  then  the  hulls  and  the  leaves  in  the  order  named. 

The  poisonous  principle  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  ether  and  fatty  oils,  slightly  solu- 
ble in  water,  and  soluble  in  alkaline  fluids  and  glycerin  (Liebscher).  The  conditions 
favorable  to  its  development  or  formation  have  not  been  determined.  Exposing  to 
a  dry  temperature  of  212°  F.  for  three  hours  only  partially  destroys  it. 

Heating  for  several  hours  in  steam,  under  pressure  of  one  atmosphere,  reduces 
its  virulence. 

The  symptoms  of  lupinosis  are  loss  of  appetite,  fever,  cerebral  symptoms  (sheep 
— Oppermann),  dullness,  excitement,  turning  movements,  pressing  the  head  against 
a  wall  and  rubbing,  abdominal  pains,  constipation  or  evacuation  of  soft,  offensive 
feces,  the  latter  often  bloody,  occasionally  hematuria  and  almost  invariably  icterus. 
Death  may  ensue  in  the  course  of  3  to  4  days,  or  the  disease  may  become  chronic. 
If  recovery  occurs  the  convalescing  period  is  usually  a  long  one.  Postmortem 
examination  of  acute  cases  reveals  generalized  icterus ;  numerous  small  hemorrhages 
are  common  (digestive  tract,  peritoneum,  pericardium,  etc.)  ;  acute  yellow  atrophy  of 
the  liver,  etc.  Treatment  requires,  above  all,  withdrawal  of  the  suspected  feed. 
Oil,  but  not  salines,  should  be  administered  to  rid  the  bowels  of  the  ingested  lupines. 
Otherwise  the  treatment  should  be  symptomatic. 

Lupines  are  by  no  means  always  toxic,  and  since  their  culture  is  of 
great  economic  importance  in  certain  sections  (excellent  feed  for  sheep, 
especially  individuals  weakened  or  emaciated  as  a  result  of  lung  worms 
and  flukes,  or  anemic  from  other  causes),  preventive  measures  consisting 
of  the  simple  rejection  of  the  lupine  as  a  forage  can  not  be  accepted  as 
practical.  A  simple  precautionary  measure  would  consist  of  the  experi- 
mental feeding  of  a  limited  number  of  animals  before  the  general  use  of 
a  particular  lot  or  crop  of  forage.  Feeding  of  the  hulls  gives  most  reli- 
able results.  If  the  experiment  indicates  the  presence  of  toxins,  the 
latter  must  be  removed  or  destroyed.  Mere  ensilaging  or  making  brown 
hay  out  of  them  is  not  sufficient  for  this  purpose.  The  most  frequently 
used  successful  method  is  to  leach  the  forage  by  exposing  it  to  the  action 
of  rain.  It  is  put  in  small  cocks  and  left  in  the  field  until  well  into 
the  winter.    This,  of  course,  entails  great  loss  in  valuable  nutrients. 

According  to  Soltfien,  the  fresh  lupine  hay  is  treated  with  three  times 
its  weight  of  water  and  10  pounds  per  hundredweight  of  officinal  aqua 
ammonia.  After  three  days  the  ammoniated  water  is  drained  off  and  the 
mass  is  leached  from  7  to  10  days  longer  in  ordinary  water.  This  method 
also  is  not  unattended  with  considerable  loss  of  nutrients.  About  one- 
fourth  of  the  dry  matter,  principally  nitrogen-free  extract  and  salts,  is 
lost. 

Julius  Kuehn  recommends  that  lupines  be  steamed  for  three  hours 
under  a  pressure  of  three  atmospheres  (about  45  pounds  to  the  square 
inch).  This  has  the  advantage  of  not  being  attended  with  loss  of  nutri- 
ents.   It  is,  of  course,  practicable  only  where  steam  pressure  is  available. 

Potato  tops  are  best  utilized  by  drying  or  ensilaging.  Dried  potato  tops  have 
almost  the  same  value  as  meadow  hay.  They  should  not  be  fed  when  affected  with 
fungus  diseases  or  when  partly  rotted. 

Leaf  or  twig  My.—Leai  hay  may  be  made  from  the  foliage  of  almost  all  trees 
and  shrubs,  but  in  particular  that  of  the  poplar,  ash,  willow,  asp,  sallow  willow 


-     STRAW  65 

{Salix  caprea),  elderberry,  buckeye,  mountain  ash,  alder,  maple,  more  rarely  that 
of  the  mulberry,  hazelnut,  grape,  birch,  beech,  black  alder  (Rhamnus  frangula)  and 
elm.  The  foliage  of  poplars,  willows  and  maples  is  the  best.  Young  birch  leaves 
irritate  the  urinary  tract.  The  leaves  of  the  beech,  oak,  alder  and  hazel  nut  contain 
much  tannic  acid  and  cause  constipation  if  consumed  in  quantity.  The  foliage  of 
laburnum,  wild  cherry,  black  alder,  yew,  oleander,  savin  and  boxwood  is  poisonous. 
The  bark  of  the  common  locust  (Robinia  pseudo-acacia)  is  toxic,  but  not  the 
stripped  leaves.  Leaf  hay  should  be  made  in  the  months  of  July  or  August.  When 
dried  in  the  sun  it  loses  its  aroma  and  palatability.  It  should  therefore  be  dried  in 
the  shade  with  the  aid  of  the  wind  or  air  currents  and  protected  as  much  as  pos- 
sible from  rains.  Small  quantities  exert  a  favorable  dietetic  affect.  Leaf  hay  must 
always  be  fed  as  a  part  ration  and  never  without  other  forage. 

If  harvested  in  a  fresh  condition,  in  July  or  August,  leaf  hay  is  easily  digested 
and  of  high  value.  Eighty  pounds  of  leaf  hay  are  equal  in  value  to  100  pounds 
of  medium  grade  meadow  hay,  and  is  therefore  superior  in  value.  Its  nutrient 
value  is  greatest  in  May,  then  gradually  diminishes,  and  in  November  it  has  lost 
at  least  two-thirds  of  its  original  nutrients.  It  is  of  particular  value  for  goats,  as 
well  as  for  sheep,  less  so  for  cattle  or  horses.  It  is  used  for  the  latter  in  times 
of  famine  or  at  other  times  as  a  dietetic  feed  in  chronic  diarrhea  (foliage  and  finely 
chopped  bark  of  willows). 

Twig  hay  is  also  a  substitute  feed  in  times  of  famine  or  scarcity.  The  twigs  of 
poplars,  Hnden,  maple,  less  frequently  those  of  the  beech,  are  used  for  this  purpose. 
They  are  first  crushed,  then  chaffed  and  ensilaged  (p.  29)  and  fed  to  cattle.  The 
digestibility  of  the  organic  matter  amounts  to  about  15  per  cent.  The  nutritive 
value  corresponds  to  that  of  the  straw  of  the  cereals.  Twig  hay  is  dried  in  moder- 
ately shady  places  and  preserved  tied  up  into  bundles,  exposed  to  the  air.  The 
trimmings  of  grape  vines  are  also  used  for  food  and  have  a  value  corresponding  to 
that  of  twig  hay. 

Sawdust,  wood  shavings  and  ground  peat  are  equally  inferior  in  digestibility  and 
are  used  only  in  times  of  scarcity  or  famine,  as  filling  mass.  Wood  shavings  are 
said  to  produce  enteritis  and  colic,  but  the  experience  of  the  late  war  has  shown 
that  apprehension  in  this  respect  was  exaggerated.  By  steaming  under  the  action  of 
acids  and  alkali  solutions,  wood  products  may  be  "converted"  in  the  same  manner 
as  straw  (p.  31)  and  in  this  manner  be  made  more  digestible. 

Reeds  should  be  cut  in  the  early  stages  of  growth,  before  the  blossom  spike  makes 
its  appearance.  As  a  substitute  for  hay  they  are  usually  fed  green  or  dried,  but 
chaffed.  If  harvested  in  the  fall  or  winter  they  are  much  less  nutritious  but  may 
still  be  of  some  value. 

The  reindeer  lichen  (Cladonia  silvatica)  and  Iceland  moss  {Cetraria  islandica) 
are  useful  substitute  materials.  Reindeer  moss  forms  dense,  light  grayish  green 
masses  on  dry  forest  and  heath  soil.  Iceland  moss  is  brown  or  greenish  brown  on 
one  surface  and  greenish  white  or  light  brown  on  the  other,  naked,  fringed  at  the 
border  and  rimose  at  the  base.  After  being  gathered  it  is  washed  and  dried.  Mixed 
with  1  per  cent  salt  solution  or  molasses,  animals  usually  eat  it  readily.  Its  actual 
feeding  value  is  low. 

Ferns  (Asplenium,  spleenwort),  not  the  poisonous  rock  brake  (Pteridium  aquili- 
num)  are  used  in  the  dried  state,  in  times  of  scarcity,  as  feed  for  horses  and  cattle. 
The  roots  are  fed  to  swine. 

Heather  (Calluna  vulgaris  and  Erica  tetralis,  European  species  related  to  the 
American  blueberry,  huckleberry,  cranberry  and  others,  some  of  which  are  said  to 
be  poisonous)  is  used  as  roughage  and  in  the  form  of  heather  meal.  The  feeding 
value  of  the  roughage  corresponds  approximately  to  that  of  straw.  That  of  the 
meal  is  about  midway  between  that  of  medium  and  low-grade  meadow  hay. 
Heather  is  most  advantageously  harvested  in  May  to  June.  The  more  woody  parts 
should  be  removed. 

2.    Straw 

Stravi^  is  the  product  of  grasses  (grains)  and  Leguminosae  that  have 
been  cut  after  maturing  of  the  fruit  or  seed. 

Grain  straw  is  one  of  the  poorest  in  protein  and  richest  in  crude  fiber 
of   feeding  stuffs.     The   strav^  of  the  Leguminosae,   however,  is  much 


66  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

richer  in  protein,  lime  and  phospiioric  acid  and  may  equal  good  meadow 
hay,  or  even  clover  hay,  in  this  respect.  The  digestible  protein  content 
and  starch  value  of  winter  cereal  straw  is  0.4  to  0.5  and  10  to  11  per 
cent  respectively.  That  of  summer  cereal  straw  is  3  to  4  and  12  to  19  per 
cent,  respectively. 

The  digestibility  of  the  protein  and  nitrogen-free  extract  is  greater 
in  the  leguminous  straw  (which  is  relatively  low  in  fiber  content),  while 
the  digestibility  of  the  fiber  is  greater  in  cereal  straw.  Ruminants  utilize 
the  nutrients  in  straw  better  than  do  horses.  Cereal  straw  is  not  suitable  as 
a  complete  ration  or  feed  even  for  animals  at  rest,  but  may  constitute  a 
part  of  the  ration  of  horses  at  rest,  for  a  certain  period  of  time,  and  even 
for  colts  during  the  second  and  third  years  of  age.  In  an  emergency, 
straw  may,  if  well  admixed  with  clover,  or  not  completely  deprived  of 
the  grain,  be  used  as  a  maintenance  feed  for  ruminants,  but  otherwise  it 
should  constitute  only  a  part  of  the  roughage  ration.  Sometimes  straw 
which  is  intended  for  litter  is  first  offered  to  sheep,  which  pick  out  the 
more  desirable  and  nutritious  admixtures.  These  latter  may  be  regarded 
as  hardly  second  to  good  meadow  hay. 

As  compared  with  all  other  feeding  stuffs,  straw  is  characterized  by 
its  bulky  nature.  It  is  important  as  a  supplementary  feed,  because  it  pro- 
vides the  necessary  mass  required  to  fill  the  voluminous  digestive  canal 
of  herbivora.  Mixed  with  watery  feeding  stuffs  (slops  and  beets)  it 
supplies  the  necessary  dry  matter,  and  owing  to  its  rich  fiber  content 
and,  in  case  of  cereal  straw,  silicic  acid  content,  acts  as  a  mechanical 
.stimulant  to  digestive  activity.  It  enforces  thorough  mastication  and 
ensahvation  (chaffed,  with  grain  for  horses)  and  stimulates  rumination 
in  cattle  and  sheep.  It  also  contributes  a  great  deal  to  the  wholesome- 
ness  of  fermented  feeding  stuffs  (silage)  and  of  clover.  This  action  is 
ascribed  to  its  favorable  effects  upon  the  digestive  organs. 

Summer  straw  is  less  woody  (fibrous)  than  winter  straw  and  conse- 
quently more  digestible.  Straw  admixed  with  different  kinds  of  weeds 
(except  perhaps  ragweed — Ambrosia  artemisisefolia)  has  a  considerably 
higher  nutrient  value,  since  most  mixtures  of  weeds  approach  medium- 
grade  meadow  hay  in  this  respect.  When  admixed  with  a  good  growth 
of  clover  it  is  still  more  valuable — up  to  2.4  per  cent  digestible  protein 
and  24  per  cent  starch  value. 

Of  the  cereal  straws,  those  of  oats  and  barley  are  the  most  valuable. 
The  former  contains  a  large  amount  of  a  bitter  principle  which  gives 
palatability  and  promotes  digestion.  It  is  especially  good  for  horses  and 
sheep.  Cattle  eat  it  well,  but  for  these  the  straw  of  barley  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred on  account  of  its  supposed  stimulating  effect  upon  milk  secretion. 
It  possesses  the  peculiar  characteristic,  however,  of  attracting  or  absorb- 
ing moisture  to  such  a  degree  that  it  is  apt  to  spoil.  Milk  cows,  however, 
should  not  be  given  too  much  of  either  oat  or  barley  straw,  because  both 
are  said  to  be  liable  to  give  a  bitter  taste  to  the  milk. 

Wheat  straw,  like  oat  and  barley  straw,  is  a  common  feed  for  cattle 


STRAW  67 

but  less  valuable  than  either  of  the  others. 

Rye  straw  is  harder  than  any  of  the  others.  It  is  usually  avoided  for 
cattle  except  as  litter,  but  is  frequently  made  a  part  of  rations  for  horses, 
chaffed  and  mixed  with  grain. 

Millet  straw,  which  approaches  oat  and  barley  straw  in  softness  of 
texture  and  nutrient  value,  is  fed  mainly  to  dairy  cattle. 

Long  storage  reduces  the  value  of  straw.  Its  bright  color  and  pleasant 
aroma  disappear;  it  becomes  brittle  and  dusty,  and  frequently  suffers 
from  the  ravages  of  mice.  If  improperly  stored,  exposed  to  moisture,  it 
becomes  moldy  and  decays. 

In  the  inspection  of  straw  for  quality,  the  interior  of  bales  should 
receive  special  attention.  It  should  be  free  from  mold  or  musty  smell, 
not  affected  with  smut  or  rust,  and  should  not  contain  an  abnormal  quan- 
tity of  thistles  or  rushes  nor  show  the  effects  of  the  ravages  of  mice. 

A  decree  of  the  Royal  Prussian  War  Department  issued  November  10,  1911,  with 
reference  to  the  use  of  straw  for  military  horses,  prescribes  the  following.  Straw 
used  must  be  rye  straw,  straight  flail-threshed,  loose  machine  threshed  or  baled 
long  straw.  The  heads  must  practically  all  be  at  the  same  e^nd  of  the  bale  or 
sheaf.  Sheafs  or  bales  must  not  contain  chaff  or  broken  masses  of  straw.  Good 
wheat  or  oat  straw  is  permissible  only  when  rye  straw  can  not  be  procured. 

Hand-threshed  flail  or  straight  straw  is  hard  and  rigid  and  contains 
practically  no  broken  culms. 

Machine-threshed  smooth  straw  is  softer,  contains  fewer  "blades,"  and 
may  have  a  slight  machine-oil  odor. 

Baled  long  straw  is  pliable  and  soft,  according  to  the  degree  of  pres- 
sure exerted  on  the  bales.  The  more  or  less  indigestible  sorts  of  straw 
may  be  "converted,"  that  is,  the  incrustating  substances  which  prevent 
easy  digestion  may  be  dissolved  and  in  this  manner  the  digestibility  and 
nutrient  value,  increased  (cf.  p.  30). 

Method  of  feeding.  For  horses  straw  should  be  fed  dry,  rarely  as 
long  straw  from  racks,  and  then  only  when  it  constitutes  a  part  of  the 
main  ration  and  is  substituted  for  hay  (draft  horses).  As  a  rule  it  is 
chaffed  and  fed  with  equal  parts  of  grain.  Chaffed  hay  should  be  cut  in 
lengths  of  about  four-fifths  of  an  inch.  If  cut  shorter,  especially  when 
moistened,  it  is  not  thoroughly  masticated  nor  ensalivated  and  may  cause 
serious  and  even  fatal  so-called  straw  colic  (impaction  of  the  ileum  or 
colon).  The  amount  of  chaff  to  be  given  as  a  ration  must  be  adjusted 
like  the  hay  ration,  according  to  the  work  of  the  animal.  Heavy  work 
horses  receive  more  than  light  coach  or  driving  horses.  Race  horses 
should  have  no  chaffed  straw  at  all. 

Cattle  may  be  given  straw  either  as  roughage,  whole  or  chaffed  in 
lengths  of  at  least  3  cm.  (1  1/5  inch)  mixed  with  beets,  grain  concen- 
trates, etc.,  often  with  the  addition  of  water,  or  scalded. 

These  mixtures  are  sometimes  kept  for  24  to  36  hours  and  permitted  to 
undergo  slight  fermentation  at  104°  F.  This  increases  palatability  and 
digestibility,  but  the  stimulating  effect  of  the  raw  material  (peristaltic 
motion)    is  considerably  diminished.     Heavy  rations  of  straw  are  not 


68  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

advisable  for  animals  in  advanced  pregnacy.  The  well-filled  paunch, 
when  animals  lie  on  the  right  side,  exercises  too  much  pressure  on  the 
uterus  and  its  contents. 

For  sheep,  straw  is  fed  whole,  or  chaffed  in  lengths  of  1.5  to  2  cm. 
(3/5  to  4/5  inch). 

The  straw  of  Leguminosae  frequently  causes  constipation  and  indiges- 
tion, which  is  ascribed  to  the  presence  of  parasitic  fungi  (plant  diseases) 
and  is  possibly  also  due  to  greedy  feeding  on  this  coarse  material,  and 
resulting  indigestion.  These  ill  effects  are  most  frequently  observed 
following  ingestion  of  vetch,  pea  and  bean  straw.  Vetch  straw  in  par- 
ticular is  apt  to  cause  constipation  in  horses  and  should  therefore  be 
fed  in  moderation  and  with  great  care. 

Legume  straw  is  mostly  used  as  sheep  and  cattle  feed.  Horses  do  not 
like  it  so  well. 

The  straw  of  Camelina  sativa  (false  flax)  buckwheat,  rape  and  turnips 
resemble  legume  straw  in  external  characteristics  and  summer  cereal 
straw  in  nutrient  value.  It  is  used  and  fed  like  legume  straw.  Buck- 
wheat straw  is  liable  to  cause  the  same  diseases  or  disturbances  as  the 
green  plant  (p.  53)  or  as  buckwheat  hay  (Breitenreiter).  Rape  straw  is 
liable  to  cause  constipation  and  flatulent  colic  in  horses. 

3.    Chaff  and  Hulls 

Chaff  and  hulls  are  the  waste  or  by-products  of  the  threshing  of  grains 
and  leguminous  plants.  They  consist  mainly  of  the  glumes  of  the  grasses, 
the  awns  and  the  hulls,  as  well  as  stems  and  leaf  parts. 

Chaff  and  hulls  are  considered  useful  feeding  stuffs,  except  in  the  case 
of  barley.  The  long  awns  of  the  latter  are  frequent  causes  of  injuries 
to  the  tongue,  gums  and  pharynx.  Barley  chaff  should  therefore  be  dis- 
carded altogether  as  a  feeding  stuff.  The  frequent  occurrence  of  the 
ray  fungus  {Actinomyces)  on  the  awns  of  barley  make  the  latter  doubly 
undesirable  and  dangerous.  Since  this  fungus  occurs  also  on  the  awns 
of  other  species  of  grain,  waste,  chaff  should  not  be  fed  to  animals  in 
localities  where  the  disease  occurs  epizootically,  unless  first  subjected  to 
steaming  or  scalding.  This  precaution  should  also  be  observed  when 
smut  or  other  fungus  infection  exists,  because  many  of  these  organisms 
are  discharged  with  the  feces  without  losing  their  germinating  power 
and  are  thus  transferred  to  the  fields  with  the  manure  and  constitute  new 
sources  of  infection. 

The  seed  hulls  are  more  readily  eaten  by  animals,  and  since  they  often 
contain  considerable  admixtures  of  seeds,  they  are  more  nutritious  and 
more  easily  digested  than  straw.  They  are  good  for  swine,  which  utilize 
them  better  than  chaff. 

Of  the  various  forms  of  chaff  that  of  oats  and  barley  is  the  richest 
in  nutrients.  Wheat  chaff  comes  next  in  this  respect.  The  woody  and 
silicious  rice  glumes  (chaff)  and  those  of  millet  arc  of  the  poorest  qual- 


TUBERS  AND  ROOT  CROPS  69 

ity.  They  have  no  value  as  feeding  stuffs  but  are  too  frequently  found 
as  adulterants  in  prepared  commercial  "meals." 

The  hulls  of  Leguminosae  are  rich  in  protein  and  are  in  every  respect 
equal  to  good  meadow  hay  in  feed  value.  On  the  other  hand  the  hulls 
of  buckwheat,  mustard,  flax,  false  flax  and  rape  (!)  are  very  inferior 
and  might  be  compared  with  winter  cereal  straw  in  feeding  value.  The 
digestible  protein  content  of  chaff"  varies  between  0.5  per  cent  in  barley 
and  1.4  per  cent  in  oats,  while  the  starch  value  varies  between  22  per 
cent  in  rye  and  28  per  cent  in  oats.  The  digestible  protein  and  starch 
values  of  the  hulls  are  3.5  and  20  per  cent  respectively. 

The  various  kinds  of  chaff  are  fed  principally  to  cattle  and  swine, 
much  more  rarely  to  horses  as  a  substitute  for  "chaffed  straw."  The 
dust  particles  should  first  be  removed  by  screening.  Chaff  should  be  wet 
and  scalded  before  feeding  to  horses,  steamed  or  fermented  for  cattle 
and  swine  (cf.  p.  29).  The  hulls  of  lupines,  beans,  rape,  and  turnips  are 
usually  fed  to  sheep  in  the  dry  state. 

Pea  hulls  have  a  high  dietetic  value  for  swine  suffering  from  chronic 
constipation  (^^  to  1  pound  daily).  Buckwheat  hulls  when  properly  pre- 
pared are  also  valuable  for  swine,  but  are  said  to  be  liable  to  cause  con- 
stipation in  horses,  which  is  true  also  of  spelt  chaff. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  in  the  feeding  of  any  kind  of  chaff.  This 
feeding  stuff  is  frequently  contaminated  with  parasitic  fungi,  the  seeds 
of  weeds  (frequently  of  a  poisonous  nature,  as  cockle  seed),  etc.  As  a 
rule  chaff'  should  be  used  as  a  supplementary  feed  only. 

III.    Tubers  and  Root  Crops 

Tubers  and  root  crops  include  potatoes,  artichokes,  turnips  and  beets, 
carrots,  etc.  All  root  crops  are  rich  in  water  and  carbohydrates,  poor  in 
protein,  and  poor  in  lime  and  crude  fiber.  Phosphates  are  present  in 
moderate  amount.  The  digestible  protein  content  is  about  0.2  per  cent, 
and  the  starch  value  of  the  potato,  according  to  water  content,  13  to  20 
jier  cent ;  mangel-wurzel,  5  to  7 ."b  per  cent ;  sugar  beet  and  artichoke, 
15.5  per  cent;  carrots,  %.7  per  cent.  They  are  important,  easily  digesti- 
ble feeding  stuffs  for  cattle  and  swine,  but,  on  account  of  their  deficient 
protein  content,  not  adapted  for  complete  rations.  When  fed  to  rumi- 
nants" the  addition  of  dry  roughage  is  absolutely  necessary-. 

1.    Potatoes 

Solanum  tuberosum  is  the  original  source  of  the  many  varieties.  Fig. 
33  represents  a  cross  section  through  a  potato  tuber.  The  carbohydrates 
are  present  in  the  potato  principally  in  the  form  of  starch.  The  more 
nitrogenous,  glassy,  soapy  varieties  of  potatoes  are  preferred  as  stock 
feed,  while  the  mealy  sorts  which  are  more  starchy  are  preferred  for 
table  use,  for  starch  manufacture  and  for  the  manufacture  of  alcohol. 

Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  potato  feeding.  Fed  in  moderation, 
raw  potatoes  stimulate  digestion  and  have  a  laxative  effect,  hence  their 


70 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


use  in  chronic  constipation  and  in  conjunction  with  less  digestible  and 
constipating  feeds.  Fed  to  excess,  they  are  apt  to  cause  colic,  diarrhea 
and  even  gastroenteritis.  The  cause  of  the  latter  is  not  clearly  under- 
stood but  is  supposedly  an  acrid  substance,  acrin.  In  the  course  of  time 
animals  may  be  accustomed  to  consume  comparatively  large  quantities, 
but  in  some  cases  this  is  done  at  the  expense  of  digestive  power.  In 
cattle  excessive  feeding  on  potatoes  may  lead  to  eczema  of  the  hind  quar- 
ters (slop  eczema)  and  inflammation  of  the  prepuce  in  males  (also  in 
sheep),  and  horses  become  subject  to  collar  and  saddle  boils,  eczemas 
and  colic.  Prolonged  feeding  of  potatoes  is  especially  contra-indicated 
for  sheep,  in  which  anemic  and  hydremic  conditions  may  develop. 

Immature  and  sprouted  potatoes,  even  when  cooked,  have  a  toxic 
effect.  The  poisonous  action  is  ascribed  to  the  glycosid  solanin  and  the 
less  toxic  solanidin  which  is  derived  from  it  The  solanin  content  of 
potatoes  grown  in  moist  sandy  soil  is  0.011  per  cent;  dry  sandy  soil. 


a  b 

l*"ig.   33.     Section   of   Potato   Tuber,     a.   Epidermis   cells;    c,   starch   filled   cells. 


0.013  per  cent;  soil  rich  in  humus,  0.0076  per  cent;  moist  soil  rich  in 
humus,  0.0045  per  cent;  while  potato  sprouts  contain  0.476  per  cent. 
When  it  is  considered  that  cattle  frequently  consume  50  pounds  of  pota- 
toes or  more  per  day,  and  swine  20  pounds,  it  is  obvious  that  they  may 
ingest  with  this  material  8  and  3  grams,  respectively,  of  solanin,  a  quan- 
tity of  poison  that  may  well  produce  the  poisonings  referred  to.  Horses 
are  less  resistant  to  the  effects  of  this  poison  than  swine. 

The  symptoms  following  the  ingestion  of  sprouted  potatoes,  or  of  solanin  pois- 
oning, are  extreme  muscular  weakness  and  even  complete  paralysis,  comatose  con- 
ditions, inflammation  of  the  brain  (sheep)  and  even  death  (from  exhautsion  of 
respiratory  muscles).  When  fed  exclusively,  or  with  insufficient  other  feed, 
potatoes  and  potato  peelings,  which  are  poor  in  lime  salts,  cause  halisteresis  ossium 
(softening,  etc.,  of  the  bones)  in  cattle,  goats  and  swine.  Cows  fed  excessively 
on  potatoes  produce  milk  and  cream  that  are  hard  to  churn.  The  butter  is  salvy 
(Henry  and  Morrison). 


POTATOES  71 

To  avoid  the  disadvantages  enumerated,  potatoes  should  be  fed  in 
moderate  quantities,  and  only  sound  potatoes  with  the  sprouts,  if  present, 
removed.  Sufficient  quantities  of  roughage  and  concentrates  (oil  cake 
and  crushed  barley)  should  be  fed  with  them.  When  fed  in  large  quan- 
tity, animals  do  better  if  the  potatoes  are  washed,  reduced  to  coarsely 
cut  pieces  and  cooked,  steamed,  or  leached  with  water  for  12  to  24  hours. 
The  water  should  be  drained  oft"  before  feeding.  The  transition  to  full 
potato  rations  for  horses  should  be  made  gradually — in  the  course  of 
two  weeks.  The  addition  of  linseed  meal  during  the  change  is  advis- 
able. It  is  important  that  the  potatoes  be  fed  in  a  freshly  prepared  state 
and  that  scrupulous  cleanliness  be  observed. 

The  use  of  potatoes.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  potatoes  are  poor 
feed  for  horses.  While  they  provide  a  certain  amount  of  bulk  or  vol- 
ume, they  lack  strength-giving  and  endurance-giving  qualities.  The 
animals  take  on  fat,  but  the  tissues  and  muscles  become  soft.  On  ac- 
count of  their  lack  of  lime  salts  potatoes  are  also  unsuitable  for  young 
colts.  However,  during  the  second  and  third  years,  and  for  horses  at 
comparative  rest  they  may  be  fed  with  the  mere  addition  of  chaffed  straw 
and  hay.  Work  horses  may  receive  one-quarter  to  one-third  of  the 
grain  ration  in  the  form  of  potatoes,  to  the  amount  of  10  pounds.  Be- 
fore feeding,  the  potatoes  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  cut  into  pieces, 
leached  in  water  for  24  hours,  or,  better,  steamed  (discard  water)  then 
crushed  and  mixed  with  salt  and  equal  parts  of  chaft'ed  straw  and  some 
crushed  oats.  In  addition,  liberal  amounts  of  good  hay  should  be  given. 
The  steamed  potatoes  should  be  fed  within  twenty-four  hours  after 
steaming.     The  mangers  should  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  leavings. 

Recently  Paechter  and  Voeltz  have  expressed  themselves  very  en- 
thusiastically in  favor  of  steamed  potatoes  for  horses.  The  practice  of 
feeding  potatoes  is  of  very  great  economic  importance  in  good  potato 
years.  Paechter  recommends  substituting  potatoes  for  the  entire 
oat  ration,  giving  in  addition  to  the  potatoes  only  hay  and  chaffed 
straw.  Efficiency  is  said  to  be  kept  up  to  the  standard  and  the  number 
of  cases  of  colic  reduced.  According  to  Voeltz,  10  pounds  of  raw  and 
25  pounds  of  steamed  potatoes  may  be  given  for  1,000  pounds  live 
weight.  In  the  spring  of  the  year  when  the  potatoes  begin  to  sprout 
and  to  decay  they  must  be  sorted  and  fed  only  after  being  steamed. 
Leguminous  seeds  or  legume  hay  should  not  be  fed  with  liberal  rations 
of  potatoes.  The  same  should  be  said  in  regard  to  feedingstuffs  rich 
in  sugar  (sugar  beets,  feed  sugar,  stock  beets). 

Ruminants  may  be  given  large  rations  of  potatoes  to  advantage.  Ma- 
ture cattle  and  sheep  may  receive  one-half  of  the  entire  nutrient  ra- 
tion in  the  form  of  potatoes,  but  young  growing  animals  should  not  re- 
ceive more  than  one-third.  For  milk  cows  daily  rations  should  not 
exceed  30  pounds,  fattening  cattle  50  pounds,  wethers  and  suckling  ewes 
2  to  3  pounds,  fattening  sheep  5  pounds  per  head.  For  ruminants  as 
well  as  for  other  animals  an  abundance  of  concentrates  and  roughage 


n  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

should  be  supplied  with  the  potatoes.  When  fed  in  small  quantities  to 
ruminants,  potatoes  may  be  given  raw,  crushed  and  mixed  with  one-sixth 
of  their  weight  of  chaff.  If  large  quantities  are  fed  it  is  better  to 
steam  or  ferment  them  before  feeding.     Cleanliness  is  indispensable. 

Potatoes  are  a  very  important  feeding  stuff  for  pigs.  They  will  fatten 
pigs  rapidly  and  economically.  According  to  very  carefully  conducted 
experiments  by  Lehmann  in  Goettingen  and  Voeltz  in  Berlin,  the  gross 
proceeds  from  100  kg.  of  potatoes^"  fed  to  fattening  swine  was  6  to 
7.35  marks  (100  pounds  of  potatoes  and  $0.75  to  $0.92,  respectively. 
These  figures  are  based  on  prewar  conditions.).  Varieties  rich  in  pro- 
tein may  even  be  fed  exclusively  and  produce  gains.  It  is  better,  how- 
ever, to  supplement  potato  rations  with  feeding  stuffs  rich  in  protein — 
milk  for  little  pigs,  and  later  on  bran,  then  cracked  grain,  oil  cake,  fish 
meal  with  thresher  chaff,  etc.  Little  pigs  receive  1  pound  as  daily  ra- 
tions, fattening  hogs  12  to  20  pounds.  Larger  rations  impart  an  insipid 
taste  and  a  soft,  smeary  consistency  to  the  meat  and  bacon.  They  also 
affect  the  firmness  of  the  bones  (halisteresis).  For  all  swine  the  po- 
tatoes should  be  cooked  or  steamed. 

Long-continued  storage  results  in  no  inconsiderable  loss  of  nutrient 
substances.  In  order  to  increase  their  keeping  qualities  and  protect 
them  from  loss  during  transportation,  the  practice  of  drying  has  been 
resorted  to  for  a  number  of  years.  This  has  become  of  importance 
for  the  commercial  as  well  as  for  the  home-used  product. 

lOPotato  rapid  mast  for  swine;   100  lbs.  increase  in  live  weight  required: 

Peas     199     lbs. 

Fish    meal     „1|1  lbs. 

Potatoes,    steamed    878     lbs. 

Cost   of  additional  commercial   feeding  stuffs: 

Peas— 199    x    $0.02125     $4,229 

Fish  meal— 15.1   x  $0.0275    0.415 

Total    $4,644 

Receipts    for    100    lbs.    pork,    live    weight    11.250 

Deduct  cost  of  above   feed    4.644 

Gross  gain   on  878  lbs.   potatoes    6.606 

Gross    gain   on    100   lbs.    potatoes    •  •  •. 0.752 

The  net  proceeds  are  obtained  by  substracting  interest  or  cost  of  rent  of  buildings,  attendance, 

preparation   of   feed,    losses,   risk,   sales  commission,   veterinary   service,   loss  of   pigs,    etc.     These 

expenses   are   subject  to  considerable  variation   on   different   farms. 

Keeping  pigs  in  the  open:  ocoik.. 

Dry    yeast    85.2  lbs. 

Barley    feed     „17-8  lbs. 

Potatoes,    steamed    990.0  lbs. 

Extra   expenses:  ^-  ,.-r 

Dry   yeast— 85.2    x    $0.0275 ^H«« 

Barley    feed— 17.8    x    $0.01875 0.33375 

Total    $2.67625 

Receipts  for  100  lbs.  live  weight ^U'lf/i-je 

Less  above    expenses    . . .' .-s.o/o^s 

Gross   receipts   for   990   lbs.   potatoes ^no?Q7« 

Gross   receipts    for    100    lbs.    potatoes u.yie/3 

Note:    The  original  figures  were  given  in  Marks  and  Kilograms,  which  accounts  for  the  ex- 
tended fractions. — Translator. 


ARTICHOKES  73 

Dried  potatoes  are  prepared  as  follows: 

1.  By  drying  raw  sliced  potatoes. 

2.  By  drying  steamed  potatoes  in  drums   (flakes). 

3.  By  expressing  the  water  and  subsequent  drying   (pressed  po- 
tatoes). 

There  is  no  difference  in  the  palatability  of  flaked  or  sliced  potatoes 
for  ruminants  or  horses.  Both  forms  are  readily  eaten  when  slightly 
moistened  and  mixed  with  chaffed  straw.  On  the  other  hand,  swine 
do  not  like  sliced  potatoes  dried  by  means  of  furnace  gasses  as  well  as 
they  like  other  preparations.  It  seems  that  the  pressed  potatoes  are 
somewhat  more  palatable  than  either  of  the  other  forms. 

Dried  potatoes  contain  about  12  per  cent  of  water,  7.4  per  cent  crude 
protein,  of  which  2.4  per  cent  is  digestible;  70  per  cent  digestible  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  2.3  per  cent  crude  fiber  and  3.9  per  cent  ash.  Digestible 
albumen  1.6  per  cent,  starch  value  71.5  per  cent. 

Dried  potatoes  agree  excellently  with  all  species  of  animals  and  are 
easily  digested.  For  horses  33  to  40  per  cent  of  the  oat  ration  may  be 
replaced  with  dried  potatoes  (with  the  addition  of  4  ounces  of  peanut 
meal).  According  to  Voeltz,  the  entire  oat  ration  may  be  replaced  with 
30  pounds  of  dried  potatoes  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight.  Dried  po- 
tatoes have  a  favorable  effect  upon  the  "condition"  and  upon  the  hair 
when  shedding.  One  hundred  pounds  of  dried  potatoes  correspond  to 
about  350  or  400  pounds  of  raw  or  cooked  potatoes.  Large  rations  of 
potatoes  should  be  accompanied  with  daily  portions  of  prepared  chalk, 
potassium  phosphate  and  common  salt,  of  each  50  grams,  or  a  little  less 
than  2  ounces,  per  horse. 

Cattle  will  take  comparatively  larger  rations  of  dried  potatoes  than 
of  steamed  potatoes,  and  with  equally  good  results. 

Pigs  fatten  well  on  dried  potato  rations  and  the  meat  product  is  sat- 
isfactory. Provided  sufficient  proteids  are  furnished  in  other  form, 
such  as  milk,  fish  meal  and  tankage,  the  balance  of  the  ration  may  con- 
sist entirely  of  potatoes.  Rations  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight  may  be 
composed  of  25  to  30  pounds  of  potato  flakes  or  pressed  potatoes  (or  16 
to  20  pounds  of  dried  sliced  potatoes)  mixed  with  water,  skim  milk  or 
whey,  well  stirred  and  fed  immediately  to  avoid  fermentation.  The 
flakes  are  sometimes  fed  in  the  dry  state. 

2.   Artichokes 

The  tubers  of  Helianthus  tuberosus  (artichoke)  cultivated  in  southern 
Germany  and  many  sections  of  the  United  States,  contain  more  water 
than  the  potato,  but  they  are  also  richer  in  protein  and  more  wholesome. 
They  are  given  to  horses  in  the  raw  state,  cut  or  crushed,  while  swine 
do  better  on  them  when  cooked.  In  other  respects  they  are  fed  just 
as   potatoes,    but   it   seems   that   animals   must   become    accustomed   to 


74  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

the  taste  before  they  reHsh  them.  Large  rations  should  be  avoided  for 
dairy  cattle  because  they  tend  to  produce  watery  milk  and  scouring.  A 
few  cases  of  poisoning  are  on  record. 

3.    Beets  and  Roots 

The  most  important  root  crops  are:  Beta  vulgaris  and  its  many  vari- 
eties (field  beet,  mangel  wurzel,  sugar  beet,  common  garden  beet,  etc.), 
Brassica  napiis  (kohlrabi,  rutabaga,  etc.),  B.  rapa  (common  white  tur- 
nip) (the  two  latter  species  are  really  cabbages),  and  Daucus  carota 
(the  carrot,  one  of  the  Umbelli ferae).  As  shown  by  the  chemical 
analyses  in  the  appendix,  they  all  contain  a  large  amount  of  water,  car- 
bohydrates (especially  sugar)  and  nonalbuminous  nitrogen  compounds 
(nitrates  and  amid  compounds),  which  compose  one-third  of  the  entire 
proteids. 

Animals  are  fond  of  these  root  crops,  which  have  a  laxative  effect 
and  are  valuable  in  chronic  constipation.  Carrots  are  reputedly  good 
vermifuges  (ascarids)  and  have  a  favorable  effect  in  catarrhal  conditions 
of  the  upper  air  passages,  dissolving  the  mucous  secretions  and  allaying 
local  irritation.  They  are  sometimes  given  to  colts  as  a  digestive  tonic. 
When  fed  to  excess  they  are  apt  to  cause  scouring  and,  in  horses,  par- 
aplegia (carotism)  and,  reputedly,  abortion.  Excessive  rations  of  tur- 
nips are  said  to  cause  inflammation  of  the  brain  in  sheep  (Oppermann). 
According  to  experiments  conducted  by  Albrecht,  carrots  in  otherwise 
good  condition  may  be  stored  for  a  long  time  without  acquiring  injurious 
properties.  Whether  soil  conditions  or  long  periods  of  storage  have 
unfavorable  effects  remains  to  be  demonstrated.  Excessive  feeding  of 
carrots  to  sheep  has  been  supposed  to  cause  anemia  and  dropsical  con- 
ditions. In  cattle  and  swine,  when  fed  with  insufficient  roughage  they 
have  been  suspected  of  causing  brittleness  and  softening  of  the  bones. 
In  cattle  fed  almost  exclusively  on  root  crops  serious  oxalic  acid  and 
saltpeter  poisoning  with  hematuria  have  been  observed.  When  fed  in 
large  chunks  these  roots  may  cause  choking  and  the  attendant  compli- 
cations. When  spoiled  or  decomposed  they  may  cause  serious  and  even 
fatal  poisoning.  It  is  said  that  exposure  of  slightly  spoiled  roots  to 
the  air  for  several  days  will  sometimes  lessen  their  injurious  effects. 

Method  of  feeding. — In  general,  roots  are  not  suitable  feed  for  horses, 
although  carrots  are  frequently  used  in  a  dietetic  way.  The  daily  ration 
may  be  10  or  20  pounds.  On  the  other  hand,  roots  are  excellent  cow 
feed,  especially  for  milk  cows.  In  moderate  amounts  (20  pounds)  they 
are  a  good  milk  feed  and  agree  well  with  pregnant  animals.  When 
fed  to  excess  they  exert  an  unfavorable  influence  upon  the  quantity 
and  quility  (bitter  taste)  of  the  milk.  This  objection  may  be  over- 
come in  case  of  rutabagas  and  kohlrabi  by  steaming,  but  not  in  case 
of  turnips  and  the  true  beets.  The  water  used  for  steaming  or  scalding 
must  of  course  be  discarded.  All  of  these  roots,  but  especially  carrots, 
are  good  for  sheep  (2  to  4  pounds).     They  have  poor  fattening  qualities 


PUMPKINS  AND  FRUITS  75 

and  consequently  are  less  suitable  for  swine.  In  this  respect  potatoes 
are  far  superior.  Swine  may  receive  2  to  4  pounds  of  roots  per  day 
to  advantage.  In  times  of  potato  scarcity  the  root  rations  may  be  in- 
creased to  24  pourfds.  The  result  in  fat  production  is  fairly  satisfactory. 
If  roots  are  fed  in  large  quantity  they  should  be  cut  or  crushed  and 
cooked  or  steamed  before  feeding.  The  water  is  retained  and  the  mass 
mixed  with  the  supplementary  ration.  The  latter  may  consist  of  one- 
third  concentrates  rich  in  protein  (fish-meal,  tankage  or  dry  yeast)  and 
two-thirds  in  the  form  of  cracked  grain  and  bran.  For  horses  and  cat- 
tle root  crops  must  be  liberally  supplemented  with  concentrates  and 
roughage.  Horses  and  cattle  take  them  raw,  cut  into  small  pieces  and 
mixed  with  chaffed  straw  or  chaffed  hay.  For  swine  they  may  be 
given  raw  or  steamed. 

Squash  and  pumpkins  are  fed  to  sheep  and  milk  cows  raw  and  chopped, 
and  cooked  for  mast  for  cattle  and  swine.  They  are  not  suitable  for 
horses  on  account  of  large  water  content,  but  when  given  in  large 
quantity  have  been  observed  to  cause  poisoning  with  symptoms  of  al- 
ternating depression  and  excitability,  stertorous  breathing,  mydriasis, 
fever,  reddening  of  the  mucous  membranes,  muscular  trembling  and 
suppressed  peristalsis. 

Apples  and  pears  are  very  wholesome  for  animals,  provided  they  are 
not  excessively  decayed.  Plums  in  moderate  amounts  are  also  health 
promoting.  Ingestion  of  excessive  amounts  by  pigs  have  caused  prus- 
sic  acid  poisoning  with  excessive  vomiting.  As  is  well  known,  the 
pits  of  plums  contain  no  inconsiderable  amount  of  prussic  acid. 

The  roots  of  Triticum  re  pens  (couch  grass,  quick  grass)  might  also 
be  mentioned  in  this  connection.  Their  feeding  value  corresponds  to 
that  of  the  best  clover  hay.  In  harvesting  especial  care  should  be  ob- 
served in  removing  all  particles  of  earth  or  sand.  This  is  accomplished 
by  harvesting  in  dry  weather  and  subsequent  screening  or  running 
through  a  thresher,  or  through  manipulation  with  a  pitchfork. 

They  are  fed  fresh  to  swine  and  cattle,  mixed  with  straw  and  hay  for 
the  latter. 

They  are  a  valuable  winter  feed  when  dried.  Special  machinery  ex- 
ists for  the  separation  of  the  tufted  plants.  After  being  thus  reduced 
in  size  the  material  is  dried  out  of  doors  or  in  special  drying  apparatus. 
As  a  dry  winter  feed  they  are  chaffed  and  used  for  horses  and  cattle. 

Couch  grass  is  a  vile  weed  in  fields  and  gardens  and  its  extermina- 
tion is  best  accomplished  by  pasturing  with   sheep. 

Translator's  addition:  The  cliitfa  {Cyt>crns  csculcntus)  should  also  be  mentioned 
here.  The  chufa  sedge,  frequently  a  weed  on  southern  farms,  produces  numerous 
small  chaffy  edible  tubers.  They  are  relished  by  pigs,  which  are  usually  turned  in  to 
harvest  the  crop.  As  chufas  are  low  in  digestible  crude  protein,  feeds  rich  in 
protein  should  be  added  to  balance  the  ration.  They  grow  best  on  light  sandy  soils, 
yielding  from  100  to  150  bushels  of  44  pounds  each  per  acre.  Like  artichokes,  the 
tubers  remain  in  the  ground  uninjured  through  the  winter.    Good  crops  of  chufas 


1(i  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

have  produced  307  to  592  pounds  of  pork  per  acre,  after  making  allowance  for  the 
other  feed  consumed  by  the  pigs.  (Henry  and  Morrison,  Feeds  and  Feeding,  16th 
edition,  1916.) 

IV.    Cereal  Grains  and  Legume  Seeds 

The  feeding  stuffs  known  collectively  as  grains  are  characterized  by 
their  high  content  of  digestible  nutrients  and  for  this  reason  are  re- 
ferred to  as  concentrates.  Their  chemical  composition  is  subject  to 
variation  according  to  the  stage  of  development,  as  is  the  case  with  all 
vegetable  feeding  stuffs.  As  is  well  known,  the  organic  substances  con- 
tained in  the  grains  are  not  carried  into  them  with  the  plant  juices  in 
the  same  form  in  which  they  appear  later.  This  explains  why  unripe 
grains,  or  grains  interrupted  in  the  process  of  maturing  by  breaking  of 
the  stems  of  the  plants  (lodging)  or  injured  by  insects,  or  prematurely 
ripe  from  effects  of  dry  weather,  show  a  variation  in  their  chemical 
composition.  The  protein  bodies  circulate  in  the  plant  tissues  in  the  form 
of  amid  compounds  and  are  converted  into  albumen  or  other  proteids 
at  the  points  or  in  the  cells  where  they  finally  lodge.  The  carbohydrates 
circulate  as  water-soluble  substances  (grape,  cane,  sugar,  inosite,  etc.) 
and  as  such  are  carried  into  the  seeds  and  fruits,  where  they  are  grad- 
ually changed  into  insoluble  substances  (starch,  galactan,  mannan,  etc.). 
Soil,  conditions  of  fertility,  plant  variety,  climate,  weather  during  growth 
or  harvest,  etc.,  all  influence  the  chemical  composition  and  nutrient 
content  of  the  seeds  and  grains.  Elevated  and  dry  soil  tends  to  pro- 
duce grain  rich  in  proteids  and  well  supplied  with  glumes  or  chaff. 
Drouth  tends  to  reduce  the  relative  amount  of  nutrients  in  grain,  and 
excessively  wet  weather  produces  grain  of  a  soft  and  loose  texture. 
Summer  grains  are  usually  richer  in  protein  and  contain  less  starch  than 
winter  grains.  Wet  weather  may  cause  grains  to  sprout  in  the  field  be- 
fore harvested,  which  entails  a  serious  loss  in  protein  and  starch  value 
(20  to  25  per  cent). 

The  different  varieties  of  grain  are  highly  digestible.  (See  chart 
in  appendix.)  Their  nutrient  efficiency  may  be  increased  by  removal 
of  the  more  or  less  indigestible  chaff  (glumes)  and  hulls. 

In  order  to  utilize  to  good  advantage,  the  nutrients  that  are  present, 
grains  fed  to  cattle  and  swine  are  frequently  cracked,  crushed,  ground, 
soaked  or  scalded,  more  rarely  cooked  or  steamed  with  other  feeding- 
stuffs.     Mere  soaking  is  not  sufficient  to  insure  complete  digestion. 

Barley,  Indian  corn,  rye  and  buckwheat,  intended  for  horses,  are  also 
frequently  crushed  or  previously  soaked  and  mixed  with  chaffed  straw. 
Oats  mixed  with  chaff,  for  horses,  are  usually  fed  dry  and  whole,  unless 
defective  teeth  make  crushing  necessary.  But  even  horses  with  good 
teeth  utilize  the  nutrients  in  oats  to  better  advantage  if  the  oats  are 
crushed   before    feeding.  "    - 

1.    The  Cereal  Grains 
The  grains  contain  on  an  average  of  from  8  to  14  per  cent  of  crude 
protein,  which  consists  mainly  of  albumen;  a  moderate  amount  of  fat. 


REQUIREMENTS  FOR  SOUNDNESS  11 

1,5  to  6  per  cent;  large  amounts  of  starch,  45  to  65  per  cent;  and  com- 
paratively little  mineral  matter,  2  per  cent  in  decorticated  grains  and  4 
per  cent  in  whole  grains  with  the  glumes.  Potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  predominate  among  the  salts,  while  lime  is  present  in  very  small 
amount,  0.05  per  cent. 

In  the  structure  of  the  grain  (see  Fig.  34)  we  distinguish: 

1.  The  seed  coat,  composed  of  an  inner  and  an  out  layer.  The 
nutritive  valu?.  and  digestibility  of  the  seed  coat  correspond  approxi- 
mately to  those  of  the  glumes  or  chaff. 

2.  The  body  of  the  grain,  or  endosperm.  The  endosperm  consists 
of  an  outer  layer  of  cells  rich  in  albumen,  the  aleurone  layer,  which  in- 
closes the  endosperm  proper  (composed  of  starch-filled  cells). 

3.  The  embryo,  which  is  located  at  the  base  of  the  grain  in  a  de- 
pression in  the  endosperm  and  consists  of  cotyledon,  stem  and  radicle. 

Samples  for  the  examination  or  inspection  of  the  quality  of  grain 
should  be  taken  from  different  depths  and  regions  of  the  bin  or  sack 
and  thoroughly  mixed.  In  Germany  farmers  may  send  such  samples  to 
the  agricultural  experiment  stations  or  to  the  hygienic  institutes  of 
the  veterinary  colleges  for  grading.  Each  sample  should  consist  of  at 
least  two  pounds  of  grain,  carefully  packed  and  sealed.  In  the  grading 
of  grains  and  in  the  determination  of  their  value  the  following  points 
are  considered  :^° 

1.  Requirements  for  soundness. — The  grain  must  be  properly  ma- 
tured (shriveling  indicates  immaturity),  have  a  natural  gloss  and  a 
sufficient  degree  of  dryness,  must  not  have  a  musty,  moldy  or  other 
foreign  odor,  must  not  show  signs  of  germination,  moldiness,  nor  be 
spotty;  not  contaminated  with  injurious  fungi  (rust,  ergot  or  smut); 
contain  no  injurious  insects,  and  no  grains  marked  by  weevils.  Germi- 
nated grains  (Fig.  35)  may  be  recognized  by  the  three  curly  thread- 
like rootlets  at  the  base  and,  on  section,  the  presence  of  a  cavity  which 
contained  the  embryo.  This  cavity  varies  in  size  with  the  length  of  time 
that  the  germinating  process  was  active.  Awns  should  not  be  mistaken 
for,  or  confused  with,  the  rootlets  referred  to  (Fig.  36).  This  possi- 
bility is  greatest  in  awned  oats.  Most  varieties  of  oats  are  unawned, 
but  the  awned  varieties  have  a  slightly  bent,  bristly  process  about  1.5 
to  2  cm.  (3/5  to  4/5  in.)  long,  extending  from  the  back  of  the  outer 
glume — the  awn. 

2.  Weight. — The  weight  of  grain  is  determined  either  by  weighing 
a  standard  measured  amount  or  by  weighing  a  standard  number  of 
grains,  usually  100.  Uniform  size  of  the  grain  is  a  positive  advantage 
in  weight.  A  liter  of  oats  will  weight  400  to  520  grams,  medium  grade 
440  to  462  grams.     For  storage  or  elevator  purposes  the  minimum  weight 

lOFor  official  grain  standards  of  the  United  States  for  wheat,  corn  and  oats,  see  Service  and 
Regulatory  Announcements,  Bureau  of  Markets,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  No.  33.  There 
are  no  United  States  Standards  for  rye. — Translator. 


78  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


Fig.   34.     Barley   grain    (according  to  Harz).  „         j.  .     u/ u 

I      Entire   fruit,  long  section,  without  glumes.     Em,   germ;   R,  rudimentary   root;    iV.H.,   roax. 

cap;   F,   rudimentary   leaf;    Ws,  root  envelope;    K,   aleurone   layer;   M,  starchy  body;   N   and    1. 

seed   coat;    S,   vestige    of   style. 

II.     Cross  section,  Pe,   seed   coat;    E,   outer   layer. 

I.  Outer  part  of  seed  coat  with  longitudinal  cells. 

II.  Transverse   cells.     III.     Tubular  cells.     Other  marks  same   as   under   I. 


REQUIREMENTS  FOR  SOUNDNESS  79 

should  as  a  rule  not  fall  below  462  grams  (46.2  kg.  per  hectoliter  or 
35.67  +  pounds  per  Winchester  bushel)."  The  weight  of  rye  should 
not  be  less  than  716  grams  per  liter  or  55,28  pounds  per  bushel.^^  In 
general,  the  individual  grain  weight,  or  weight  of  a  standard  number  of 
grains,  constitutes  a  better  basis  for  the  grading  of  grain  as  to  quality. 
The  larger  grains  are  heavier  and  relatively  richer  in  nutrients  than  the 
smaller  ones  which  contain  more  crude  fiber.  One  hundred  grains  of 
rye  of  the  best  grade  will  weight  2.70,  medium  grade  2.20  to  2.70,  low 
grade  2.00  grams.  One  hundred  grains  of  oats  weigh  3.30,  2.85  to  3.20, 
and  2.50  to  2.70  grams,  respectively,  for  high,  medium  and  low  grades. 
Moisture  causes  grains  to  swell,  and  increase  in  individual  or  grain 
weight.     The  weight  of  a  standard  measure  of  grain  does  not,  however, 


Fig.   36.     Awned  oats 
(rough   oats). 


Fig.  35.     Germinated  grains. 

increase  in  the  same  proportion  from  absorbed  moisture,  because  the 
additional  moisture  increases  the  size  of  the  grains  and  reduces  their 
number  per  standard  unit  of  measure. 

3.  Purity. — The  best  grades  of  grain  must  be  absolutely  clean  arid 
pure.  Good  medium  grades  must  not  contain  more  than  1  per  cent  for- 
eign matter,  including  chaff  and  dust.  The  degree  of  impurity  is  de- 
termined by  separation  of  the  foreign  matter  and  subsequent  weighing. 

Of  the  foreign  matter  occurring  in  grains  we  distinguish : 

a.  Harmless  material  like  sand,  dust,  pebbles,  earth,  pieces  of  wood, 
manure,  or  feces  of  rodents  and  insects;  chaff;  broken,  undeveloped, 
sterile,  and  germinated  grains ;  parts  of  weeds  like  calyxes,  capsules, 
hulls,  seeds,  etc. ;  vetch  seed,  peas,  rape  seed,  plantain,  etc. 

b.  Harmful  or  noxious  substances  like  ergot,  rust  and  smut  fungi, 
molds,  cockle  seed  (black  or  brown,  roundish  or  reniform,  2.5  to  3  mm. 


iiUnited  States  Standard,  determined  by  State  law. 


80  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

in  diameter  with  verrucose  surface  and  white  interior),  Lolium  tenitilen- 
tum  (grass  fruit  5  to  8  mm.  long,  short  oval  form,  yellowish  gray  or 
greenish  gray  awn  10  to  12  mm.  long,  broad  at  base,  rough  and  sharply 
pointed),  or  buttercup  seed,  knotweed  seed,  mustard,  etc.  Various  de- 
vices are  in  use  for  cleaning  grain  (Figs.  37  and  38). 

4.  Moisture  content. — Air-dried  grain  contains  from  12  to  15  per  cent 
of  water.  (See  page  3  for  methods  for  determination  of  exact  water 
content.)  The  mere  handling  of  the  grain  will  give  an  approximate 
idea  of  the  water  content.  Properly  dried  oat  grains  have  hard,  sharp 
points  and  produce  a  clear  "ringing"  sound  when  rubbed  between  the 
hands.  Damp  oats  are  "tough"  and  do  not  have  sharp  points,  are  soft 
or  doughy  between  the  teeth,  while  the  dry  grains  snap  or  crack.  Oats 
that  have  been  wet  down  to  increase  their  weight  have  a  rough  surface 
after  drying  out. 

5.  Sise  and  Form. — As  a  rule  the  larger,  fuller,  more  rounded  or 
plump  and  the  more  even  or  uniform  the  comparative  size  of  the  grain, 


Grain-cleaning     machine — Fanning  Fig.  i    -  .ntnmg  and   cleaning  ma 


the  better  its  quality  and  the  greater  its  value.  Normally  developed 
grains  are  referred  to  as  "medium;  when  extra  large  and  well  rounded 
out  in  form,  "plump" ;  when  not  fully  developed,  "lean" ;  and  when 
stunted  in  growth  or  shrunken,  as  "screening."  (Fig.  39.)  The  latter 
are  generally  rich  in  crude  fiber  and  deficient  in  starch,  etc.  In  regard 
to  size,  oats  are  an  exception  in  this  respect.  Small-grained  varieties  of 
oats  are  generally  richer  in  protein  and  therefore  more  highly  valued. 
6.  Color. — A  fresh,  bright  color  indicates  sound  and  fully  matured 
grain.  Grains  of  a  dull,  pale  appearance,  especially  when  spotted  and 
with  dark  ends  or  tips,  indicate  exposure  to  moisture,  poor  storage, 
and  mouldiness.  In  order  to  improve  the  appearance  of  poor  quality 
grain  it  is  sometimes  treated  with  oil.  This  fraudulent  practice  may  be 
detected  by  compressing  the  suspected  grain  between  tissue  or  blotting 
paper,  which  absorbs  the  oil  and  reveals  its  presence.  Mixing  and  agi- 
tating suspected  oiled  grain  with  powdered  bronze  causes  the  latter  to 
adhere  to  the  oiled  surfaces.  Powdered  metallic  copper  dusted  on  the 
surface  of  water  contained  in  a  thoroughly  clean  glass  vessel  (tumbler) 


OATS  81 

takes  on  a  lively  motion.  The  addition  of  oiled  grains  checks  this  mo- 
tion, while  the  addition  of  unoiled  grain  has  no  effect. 

7.  Odor. — The  normal  odor  or  smell  of  grain  diminishes  in  intensity 
with  age.  Unpleasant,  close,  damp,  moldy  or  musty  odors  indicate 
various  forms  of  decomposition.  These  odors  are  intensified  by  heating 
or  warming  the  grain  by  holding  in  the  hand,  breathing  upon  it,  etc. 
Such  grain  also  has  a  bitter,  rancid  taste.  Fraudulent  attempts  are  some- 
times made  to  destroy  or  disguise  these  odors  by  treating  with  powdered 
aromatic  herbs  (marjoram)  and  mixing  with  fresh  and  more  aromatic 
grain    (oats). 

Among  the  true  grains  we  have  oats,  barley,  wheat,  corn,  spelt,  rice 
and  millet.     Buckwheat  resembles   the  grains   in  chemical  composition. 

a.    Oats 

Oats  are  extensively  cultivated  in  Germany,  Russia,  Sweden,  Austria, 
Hungary,  Rumania  and  North  America.  In  addition  to  the  common 
panicled  oats,  Avena  sativa,  a  number  of  varieties  of  an  oriental  species, 
A.  orientalis,  are  cultivated  in  Southern  Europe  and  experimentally  in 
the  United  States  (white  and  black  Tartarian  oats,  Hungarian  oats,  etc.). 
The  panicle  in  this  oriental  species  is  developed  unilaterally,  not  symmet- 
rically as  in  the  common  oat,  whence  the  German  name,  "flag  oats,"  from 
its  fancied  resemblance,  when  in  bloom,  to  a  flag.  Naked  oats,  A.  nuda, 
are  of  no  economic  importance  in  Germany.  A.  strigosa,  sand  or  purr 
oats  (Fig.  36),  which  grow  wild  on  poor,  sandy  soils  in  northern  Ger- 
many, and  A.  fatua,  wind  or  wild  oats,  with  small,  slim,  yellowish  gray 
grains,  are  of  no  great  value  as  feeding  material. 

A.  fatua  resembles  the  common  oat,  occurs  in  Wisconsin  and  Minne- 
sota and  is  a  naturalized  European  species.  These  wild  species  of  oats 
are  sometimes  mixed  with  the  cultivated  species.  They  have  coarse  hulls 
and  a  large  twisted  and  bent  awn  2  inches  long.  The  large,  dark  glumes 
have  green  tips  and  yellowish  red  or  brownish  hairs.  The  hilum  or 
scar,  where  the  seed  was  attached  to  the  stem,  is  dark  colored,  elevated, 
and  resembles  a  horse's  hoof  in  form,  whence  the  name,  horsefoot  oats. 

Avena  hrevis  is  another  common  wild  species  of  Europe  with  seeds 
still  smaller  than  those  just  mentioned  and  equally  indifferent  in  value. 
There  are  early  and  late  varieties  of  Avena  sativa  with  many  subvarieties 
of  each.  In  Germany  these  various  varieties  are  usually  known  by  the 
name  of  the  region  or  country  where  they  originated  as  American, 
Canadian,  Pomeranian,  Silesian,  Scotch  Longfellow,  etc.  (A  similar 
custom  of  naming  prevails  in  the  United   States. — Translator.) 

The  individual  oat  grain  has  a  flat  ventral  and  an  arched  dorsal  sur- 
face. It  is  inclosed  by  an  outer,  hard,  strawlike  glume  and  an  inner 
covering  of  finer  texture,  also  a  glume.  The  latter  is  attached  at  its 
base  to  the  lower  border  of  the  fruit  or  grain.  Each  spikelet  in  the  oat 
panicle  usually  contains  two  grains,  the  lower  main  grain,  which  is  the 
larger  and  more  valuable  (size  12  to  20  by  2.5  to  3.5  mm.),  and  recog- 
nized by  the  short,  stubby  stem  to  which  the  upper  or  secondary  grain 


82 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


was  attached  (size  8  to  13  by  2  to  3  mm.).  These  two  grains  are  inclosed 
in  common  by  two  large  glumes  which  usually  remain  attached  to  the 
straw  when  threshed.  In  the  awned  varieties  of  oats  the  lower  main 
grain  only  is  supplied  with  an  awn.  The  main  grains  are  frequently 
separated  from  the  threshed  product  by  special  machines  and  used  for 
seed. 

According  to  the  degree  of  development  of  the  oat  grains  they  are 
classified  as  plump,  medium,  lean,  and  screenings,  or  first,  second,  third 
and  fourth  grade.  In  plump  grain  (first  grade.  Figs.  39  and  40)  the 
inner  glume  bulges  or  is  convex.  In  medium  or  second  grade  grain  this 
glume  is  flat.  In  lean  or  third  grade  grain  it  is  hardly  visible,  and  in 
screenings  or  fourth  grade  grain  the  borders  of  even  the  outer  glume  are 
curled  inward.  A  cross  section,  at  the  largest  diameter,  of  plump  grain 
is  oval  in  form,  and  dorsal  and  ventral  surfaces  convex  to  an  almost  equal 


(32    ^ 


a,  bed 

Fig.  39.  Ventral  surface  of  different 
oat  grains,  a,  plump  or  full  grain ;  b, 
normal  or  medium  grain;  c,  lean  grain; 
d,  screening  grain. 


Fig.  40.  Cross  sections  of  different  oat  grains. 
Plump  or  full  grain;  h,  normal  or  medium  grain; 
lean  grain;  d  and  e,  screening  grain. 


degree.  Medium  grade  grain  thus  sectioned  shows  a  flattened  ventral 
surface,  lean  grain  a  kidney  shaped  outline,  and  screenings  or  fourth 
grade  grain  shows  an  irregular  figure  which  consists  chiefly  of  glumes 
(sterile  grain).  In  medium  grade  or  normal  grain  the  glumes  should 
exceed  the  grain  by  not  more  than  one-quarter  of  its  length.  In  poor 
grades  of  oats  the  glumes  are  considerably  longer. 

The  weight  of  the  glumes  or  hulls  of  oats  vary  between  21  and  49 
per  cent.  In  fine  hulled  varieties  it  is  usually  under  26  per  cent  and  in 
coarse  hulled  varieties  it  is  usually  over  29  per  cent.  Long  glumes  and 
sterile  grains  tend  to  increase  the  percentage  weight  of  the  hulls.  The 
German  army  regulations  require  that  oats  may  contain  a  maximum  of 
30  per  cent  glumes  or  hulls. 

The  following  table  gives  the  chemical  constituents  of  the  more  val- 
uable grain  proper  and  of  the  less  valuable  hulls,  of  the  oat. 


Nitrogen-free 

Crude  protein 

Crude  fat 

extract 

Crude  fiber 

Mineral 

Grain 

14.1 

7.55 

74.1 

2.2 

2.77 

Hulls  . 

4.6 

1.7 

58.6 

27.5 

7.65 

OATS  83 

On  account  of  this  marked  difference  in  chemical  composition  the 
proportion  of  hull  to  pure  grain  in  oats  is  an  important  consideration  in 
the  determination  of  its  Value.  The  fineness  of  the  hull  therefore  plays 
an  important  role  in  the  judging  of  quality. 

Among  the  fine-hulled  varieties  of  oats  may  be  mentioned  Oderbruch, 
Rhenish,  Kamchatka,  so-called  American  potato  oats  and  the  black 
varieties  of  oats.  Varieties  with  hulls  of  medium  weight  are  Warthe- 
bruch,  Propsteier,  Ruegen,  Silesian  and  most  of  the  awnless  varieties  of 
golden  oats,  Swedish  oats  and  Danube  oats.  So-called  barley  oats,  Scotch 
Longfellow,  Podolian,  white  Canadian  and  many  Russian  and  American 
varieties  belong  to  the  coarse-hulled  class. 

The  amount  of  crude  protein  in  oats  varies  between  6  and  17  per  cent, 
(average  10  per  cent);  crude  fat  5  per  cent  (3  to  7  per  cent),  about 
three  times  as  much  as  that  of  rye,  wheat  or  barley;  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract 58  per  cent.  Crude  fiber  11  per  cent,  mineral  matter  3.3  per  cent, 
water  12  per  cent,  digestible  protein  5.6  to  9  per  cent  and  a  starch  value 
of  55  to  63  per  cent. 

The  digestive  coefficient  of  oats  is  high.  Oats  are  more  rapidly  di- 
gested than  the  other  species  or  grains,  and  the  protein  and  fat  in  par- 
ticular have  higher  digestive  coefficients,  except  the  fat  in  Indian  corn 
(dent)  which  has  a  higher  digestive  coefficient  than  the  fat  in  oats.  The 
digestive  coefficient  of  the  carbohydrates  of  oats  is  lower  on  account  of 
the  large  percentage  of  hulls.  The  easy  digestibility  of  oats  is  due  in 
part  to  the  presence  of  large  amounts  of  starch-dissolving  and  albumen- 
dissolving  ferments,  but  above  all  to  the  fact  that  the  presence  of  the 
hulls  prevents  the  formation  of  a  doughy  mass  in  the  stomach  but  aids 
in  keeping  the  contents  loose  and  spongy  and  permits  the  free  circula- 
tion or  admixture  of  the  digestive  fluids. 

Of  all  the  species  of  grains  oats  are  the  most  wholesome  and  palatable. 
They  are  taken  with  relish  by  swine  as  well  as  by  all  herbivora.  Di- 
gestive disorders  such  as  follow  the  feeding  of  other  grains  do  not  occur 
after  the  careful  feeding  of  oats.  These  agreeable  properties  of  oats 
were  formerly  ascribed  (Sanson)  to  the  presence  of  an  alkaloid,  avenin, 
in  the  glumes  or  hulls.  More  recent  investigations,  however,  have  dem- 
onstrated that  avenin  does  not  occur  in  oats.  Traces  of  cholin  and 
trigonellin  occur. 

Freshly  harvested  and  not  thoroughly  dry  oats  are  considered  less 
digestible  and  less  nutritious  than  the  thoroughly  dried  grain.  They  are 
said  to  produce  sweating  and  weakness  and  sometimes  gastrointestinal 
catarrahs,  colics  and  hemaglobinuria.  Immature,  damp  or  mouldy  oats 
of  recent  harvesting  are  especially  dangerous.  The  cause  of  this  may  be 
looked  for  chiefly  in  the  presence  of  the  fresh  mold.  Well-bred  horses 
are  more  sensitive  to  the  effects  of  such  feed  than  the  coarser  types, 
It  is  best  to  store  oats  for  about  three  months  after  harvest  and  let  the 
sweating  process  run  its  course  completely  before  beginning  to  feed. 
The  change   from  old  to  new  oats  should  even  in  this  case  be  made 


84  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

gradually.  In  recent  years,  however,  the  supposed  danger  of  feeding 
fresh  oats  is  more  and  more  disregarded  and  it  is  generally  assumed 
that  fresh  sound  oats,  properly  harvested,  may  be  fed  without  danger, 
provided  the  change  to  the  new  feed  is  made  carefully  and  gradually. 

Long  storage  impairs  the  value  of  oats,  causes  loss  of  nutrients'^  and 
makes  them  less  digestible.  As  a  rule  oats  should  not  be  kept  in  storage 
longer  than  one  year. 

Jtuiging. — Good  oats  should  be  mature,  well  filled,  dry,  thin  hulled, 
not  too  small,  uniform  in  size  and  have  a  good  odor.  There  should  be 
no  admixture  of  foreign  matter  and  no  odor  suggesting  kiln  drying. 
Good  oats  should  be  free  from  ergot,  rust  and  smut  fungi,  seeds  of  corn 
cockle  and  poisonous  darnel  {Lolium  temulentum),  as  free  as  possible 
from  undeveloped  grains,  and  the  seeds  of  vetches,  charlock,  brome  and 
other  weeds,  and  free  from  sand,  earth  and  other  dirt.  German  mili- 
tary regulations  provide  for  the  rejection  of  oats  containing  injurious 
insects  or  traces  of  the  same,  worm  webs,  etc.  The  standard  weight 
per  liter  should  not,  if  possible,  be  below  462  grams  (462  to  500  grams). 
In  judging  or  grading  oats  the  proportionate  amounts  of  plump,  normal, 
lean  and  screening  grains  should  be  noted.  Uniform  normal  grains  are 
superior  and  preferable  to  a  mixture  of  plump  and  screening  grades. 
The  color  should  be  yellowish  white,  pale  yellow  or  grayish  white, 
rarely  black  and  shiny.  Of  the  yellow  varieties  the  golden  yellow  is 
preferable.  Exposure  to  rain  after  cutting  causes  loss  of  bright  color 
and  the  appearance  of  spots.  The  lighter  colored  varieties  take  on  a 
shade  of  gray,  or  even  an  ash  gray;  the  golden  yellow  varieties  become 
reddish  to  grayish  yellow.  To  improve  the  color  oats  are  sometimes 
bleached  with  sulphur,  recognizable  by  the  presence  of  an  odor  of  sul- 
phur fumes.  (Smith  estimates  that  in  six  months  beginning  October  1, 
1908,  nearly  19,000,000  bushels  of  oats  and  barley  were  bleached  at  13 
grain  centers  in  three  North  Central  States  of  the  United  States. — Trans- 
lator.) Green  tips  on  the  glumes  or  hulls,  shrinking  or  shriveling  and 
light  weight  indicate  immaturity.  The  protein  content  of  oats  of  this 
character  is  usually  unchanged,  but  the  starch  value  is  much  reduced. 
In  the  black  varieties  of  oats  the  entire  grain  should  be  of  cofifee  brown 
or  black  color.  If  the  tips  only  are  black  this  indicates  a  spoiled  con- 
dition. Spoiled  oats  have  frequently  been  the  cause  of  serious  poison- 
ing. Inspections  should  always  be  made  in  daylight,  with  blue  back- 
ground (blue  paper)  to  aid  in  recognizing  the  various  shades  of  colors. 

The  odor  should  be  characteristically  aromatic.  Foreign,  unpleasant, 
close,  musty,  moldy,  or  kiln-dry  odors  should  be  absent.  The  latter  is 
due  to  the  kiln-drying  of  oats  harvested  in  unfavorable  weather.     Such 

i2Losses  caused  by  storage  of  grains  depend  upon  the  oxygen  supply  and  moisture  content  of 
the  grain.  In  hermetically  closed  containers  (silos)  oats  lose  1  per  cent  of  their  total  carbon  in 
one  year.  In  vessels  or  containers  through  which  a  constant  stream  of  air  is  slowly  forced  the 
loss  amounts  to  6.5  per  cent.  The  oxidizing  processes  which  go  on  in  the  oat  'grain  are  favored 
by  high  water  content  and  high  temperature.  They  affect  chiefly  the  starch  content,  to  a  less 
degree  the  fat,  and  to  a  slight  degree  only  the  crude  protein  and  sugar.  In  flour  or  cracked 
grain  the  losses  are  greater  than  in  whole  grain. 


OATS  85 

oats  may  also  be  recognized  by  the  darker  color.  Foreign  odors  may 
be  intensified,  to  aid  detection,  by  warming  a  sample  of  the  grain  in  the 
hand,  or  by  breathing  upon  it. 

The  taste  should  be  sweetish.  Grain  with  a  musty,  bitter,  rancid  or 
moldy  taste  should  be  rejected. 

The  stage  of  maturity  should  also  be  considered.  The  grains  should  be 
well  matured. 

With  reference  to  the  stage  of  maturity  we  have — 

a.  Milk-ripe  or  green-matured  grains,  distinguished  by  their  green 
color  and  milk-like  contents.  Water  content  50  per  cent  or  more.  Will 
not  keep. 

b.  Yellow  or  waxy  stage.  May  be  easily  crushed  with  the  finger 
nail.    This  is  the  proper  stage  for  cutting. 

c.  Fully  matured  grains,  can  not  be  bent  but  break  when  pressed 
upon  with  the  finger  nail.  Have  a  riper  color.  When  cut  in  this  stage 
the  grain  easily  shatters.  This  latter  is  still  more  pronounced  in  dead  ripe 
grains. 

d.  Dead  ripe  grains  are  hard  and  brittle.  When  threshed  they  are 
usually  mixed  with  many  broken  grains. 

e.  Prematurely  ripe  grains,  resulting  from  drying  up  of  milk-ripe 
grains  as  a  result  of  drouth  or  excessive  heat  or  too  early  harvesting. 
Such  grains  are  slender,  undeveloped,  stunted,  shriveled  and  of  light 
color.     They  are  of  inferior  value,  mold  easily  and  are  not  fit  for  storage. 

Among  the  foreign  admixtures  of  oats  should  be  mentioned  parasitic 
fungi,  weed  seeds  and  animal  parasites,  larvae  of  the  oat  fly,  etc.,  all 
injurious  to  the  health  of  animals.  Of  the  parasitic  fungi  of  oats  there 
are  Ustilago  (smut),  Puccinia  (rust),  Erysiphe  (mildew),  rarely  Secale 
cornutum  (ergot).  Among  the  important  weed  seeds  we  have  corn 
cockle,  poisonous  darnel,  wild  mustard,  vetches  and  chick  pea  {Lathyrus 
sativus),  charlock,  corn,  crowfoot,  wild  morning  glory,  knotgrass,  thistle, 
corn  flower,  larkspur,  dog  fennel,  wild  oats  {Avena  fatua),  sorrel 
(Rumex),  brome  grass,  spurry,  etc.  After  storage,  oats  may  be  further 
contaminated  by  molds  and  bacteria,  weevils,  larvae  of  the  grain  moth, 
meal  mite,  etc.  In  regard  to  injurious  effects  following  the  feeding  of 
spoiled  or  contaminated  oats,  see  Klimmer,  Hygiene,  special  chapters  on 
molds,  fungi,  poisons,  etc.  Brief  reference  should  be  made  at  this  place, 
however,  to  musty  oats. 

Musty  oats  may  produce  digestive  disorders  accompanied  by  symptoms 
of  loss  or  appetite,  constipation,  colic  and  diarrhea,  polyuria,  dizziness, 
difficult  deglutition,  swaying  of  the  hind  parts,  and  even  paralysis.  These 
symptoms  usually  disappear  with  a  change  of  feed.  The  exact  nature  of 
the  toxic  substance  in  musty  oats  is  not  known.  Musty  oats  may  be 
recognized  by  their  color  and  usually  also  by  their  odor.  The  odor  may 
be  removed  by  thorough  aerating  (frequently  turning)  but  the  toxic  prop- 
erties remain.  The  addition  of  a  little  common  salt  increases  the  palata- 
bility  of  musty  oats  and  tends  to  diminish  their  toxic  effect. 


86  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

Uses  of  oats.  Oats  are  the  most  valuable  and  wholesome  feed  for 
horses  of  all  classes  and  ages.  They  are  usually  fed  whole,  but  it  is 
better  to  crush  or  roll  them  and  mix  them  with  equal  parts  of  chaffed 
straw.  Young  horses  and  old  ones  with  defective  teeth  should  have 
their  oats  crushed  (not  cut  or  rough  ground).  The  same  applies  to 
greedy  feeders  and  to  animals  in  run-down  condition.  These  oat  and 
chaff  mixtures  should,  in  general,  be  fed  in  the  dry  state,  especially  to 
driving  and  coach  horses.  In  these  cases  it  is  often  well  to  reduce  the 
chaff  and  hay  rations.  Heavy  work  horses,  on  the  other  hand,  may  have 
more  chaff  and  hay  and  have  the  chaff  and  grain  well  moistened  with 
water.  Moistening  the  feed  with  water,  however,  affects  ensalivation 
unfavorably,  and  since  this  affects  the  digestive  processes,  it  is  usually 
better  to  feed  dry.  When  oats  are  the  only  concentrate  in  the  ration, 
the  daily  amount  should  be  adjusted  according  to  age,  character  of 
work  and  size,  10  to  18  pounds  for  work  horses,  3  to  6  pounds  for  colts 
during  the  first  year,  10  pounds  for  light  working  horses. 

Since  oats  are  relatively  high  priced,  various  substitutes  have  been 
recommended.  Indian  corn  is  perhaps  the  most  suitable  of  these.  It  is 
said  that  corn  affects  the  mettle  of  horses  and  has  a  tendency  to  make 
them  sweat.  Lavalard  and  Muentz,  however,  as  well  as  others,  have 
shown  that  neither  efficiency  nor  temperament  are  affected  unfavorably. 
According  to  Hannsson,  when  Indian  corn  is  used  as  half  of  the  con- 
centrate ration  it  exceeds  oats  20  per  cent  in  value.  If  barley  is  sub- 
stituted for  half  of  the  concentrate  ration,  its  fluctuating  chemical  com- 
position must  be  taken  into  consideration  and  only  full-grained  ma- 
terial used.  According  to  Hannsson,  1  pound  of  barley  corresponds  to 
1.12  pounds  of  oats.  Daily  rations  of  concentrates  for  work  horses, 
consisting  of  8  pounds  of  barley  and  10  pounds  of  oats,  have  shown  no 
unfavorable  effects  due  to  the  barley,  nor  was  efficiency  sacrificed.  When 
rye  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  a  part  of  the  ration,  it  should  be  cooked 
or  steamed  to  avoid  the  effects  of  subsequent  swelling.  It  should  be  fed 
in  the  proportion  of  one  part  to  two  or  three  parts  of  oats.  Wheat,  like 
buckwheat,  is  apt  to  cause  cutaneous  pruritus  in  horses  and  be  very  an- 
noying. It  is  often  fed  to  stallions.  Hannsson  had  good  results  with 
wheat  bran.  Legumes  (field  peas)  may  be  fed  in  amounts  of  from 
two  to  four  pounds  to  horses  doing  heavy  work.  Oil  cake  (linseed 
palm  seed,  cocoanut,  sesame  and  corn  oil  cake)  are  not  much  used  for 
this  purpose,  but  may  be  given  in  quantities  of  2  to  4  pounds  per  day. 
Mixtures  of  dried  brewers'  grains,  palm-seed  cake,  ground  straw,  etc., 
with  molasses,  6  pounds  daily,  have  proved  highly  satisfactory.  These 
rations  not  only  keep  animals  efficient  but  they  have  a  favorable  dietetic 
effect. 

Very  recently  Rosenberg  reported  good  results  from  the  substitution 
of  meal  flat  cakes  for  oats.  One  variety  of  these  cakes  consisted  of 
10  parts  linseed  meal  and  30  parts  oatmeal,  dextrinated  peameal  and 
rye  flour.     Another  variety  consisted  of  40  parts  of  oat  and  peameal 


BARLEY  87 

and  20  parts  of  flaxseed,  while  a  third  kind  was  made  up  of  oat,  pea 
and  wheat  flour  or  meal  and  10  parts  of  flaxseed.  In  addition  all  of 
these  contained  1  per  cent  of  common  salt  and  7  per  cent  of  water.  In 
size  they  were  4  by  4  inches,  and  about  3/5  inch  in  thickness.  They 
are  thoroughly  baked,  brittle  and  of  a  pleasant  bread  odor.  Daily  ration 
for  a  horse,  5  pounds,  broken,  without  further  preparation ;  10  pounds 
of  hay  and  water  as  usual.  The  efficiency  of  the  horses  was  not  re- 
duced. Experiments  were  conducted  on  124  military  horses  in  Russia. 
These  cakes  require  only  one-fourth  of  the  storage  space  required  for 
a  corresponding  amount  of  grain,  an  important  item  from  a  military 
point  of  view.  On  the  other  hand,  Lebedew  obtained  unfavorable  re- 
sults with  cakes  made  of  rye,  barley  and  peas.  Digestive  disorders  and 
exhaustion  were  frequently  observed.  None  of  the  many  other  feed 
cakes  prepared  and  offered  as  substitutes  for  oats  for  horses  have  come 
up  to  expectations  (pea  cakes,  Thorley  food,  Huch  blood-feed,  Achen- 
bach  concentrate,  compressed  oats,  etc.).  Attention  should  be  directed, 
however,  to  what  has  already  been  said  in  regard  to  dried  potatoes 
(sliced,  flaked  and  pressed,  p.  73)  which  have  proved  very  valuable. 
They  are  in  proportion  of  77  pounds  of  dried  potatoes  and  13  pounds 
of  dry  yeast  to  100  pounds  of  oats.  Further  reference  to  substitutes 
for  oats  as  rations  for  horses  will  be  made  in  succeeding  pages. 

On  account  of  the  relatively  high  price  of  oats  this  excellent  feed  is 
not  extensively  used  for  other  domestic  animals.  Occasionally  it  is 
used  as  a  concentrate  in  rations  for  calves,  as  much  as  1^  pounds  per 
day,  or  2  pounds  for  bull  calves.  It  is  also  fed  to  young  animals  of 
all  species,  bulls,  less  frequently  to  milk  cows,  lambs  (}i  pounds),  rams, 
ewes  (up  to  1  pound  per  day),  little  pigs  and  to  convalescents.  All  of 
these  animals  digest  the  ration  more  thoroughly  if  the  oats  are  given 
in  the  crushed  form,  except  milk  cows,  fattening  cattle  and  swine, 
which  do  as  well  on  the  coarsely  ground  grain.  Sheep  and  calves  only 
may  receive  the  grain  whole  for  best  results.  When  fed  dry  to  sheep 
the  oats  may  be  mixed  with  twice  the  volume  of  chaffed  straw,  and  this 
is  occasionally  practiced  with  cattle  also.  For  milk  cows,  coarsely 
ground  oats  may  be  mixed  with  bran,  meal,  oil  cake,  etc.,  and  fed  alone 
or  mixed  with  crushed  root  crops  (intensive  feeding).  The  method 
of  feeding  crushed  oats  to  cattle  in  most  common  use  in  Germany  is  to 
mix  with  hot  slops  or  scalding  water  and  adding  cooked  potatoes  or  beets 
to  make  a  mash.  Swine  usually  receive  coarsely  ground  oats  scalded 
with  hot  water  and  mixed  with  cooked  potatoes. 

b.    Barley 

Botanical. — Origin :  Hordeiim  vulgare,  H.  distichum  and  H.  hexas- 
tichum.  These  species  are  characterized  by  the  fact  that  there  are  three 
spikelets  at  each  joint  of  the  rachis,  while  in  wheat  and  rye  there  is 
only  one.  The  fruit  of  most  species  of  barley  is  intimately  inclosed 
by  the  glumes  (Figs.  41  to  43  and  46).    The  grains  of  rye  are  naked 


88 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


and  fall  out  when  threshed.  Wheat  grains  are  only  partially  inclosed 
by  the  glumes  and  are  otherwise  naked,  as  in  rye.  The  rachis  of  the 
glumed  varieties  of  wheat  is  brittle  at  maturity  and  is  easily  broken 
up  into  its  segments,  one  for  each  spikelet.  The  rachis  of  a  head  of  bar- 
ley is  tough  and  does  not  break. 

Chemical. — The  glumed  varieties  of  barley  are  the  only  ones  of  eco- 
nomic importance  in  feeding  animals.  The  glumes  constitute  from  12 
to  16  per  cent,  average  14  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  threshed  grain. 
The  crude  fiber  content  is  therefore  lower,  and  the  digestibility  of  the 
total  organic  matter  is  higher  than  that  of  oats.  Starchy,  protein-poor 
and  thin  hulled  varieties  of  barley  are  preferred.  The  crude  protein 
contents  amount  to  12  per  cent,  digestible  protein  8.8  per  cent,  crude 


Fig.  41.     Two-rowed  barley.  Fig.  42.     Four-rowed  barley 


Fig.   43.     Six-rowed   barley. 


fat  2.4  per  cent,  nitrogen-free  extract  64  per  cent,  water  14  per  cent  and 
mineral  matter  2.5  per  cent,  the  latter  containing  0.775  per  cent  phos- 
phoric acid  and  0.012  (winter  barley)  to  0.059  per  cent  lime;  starch 
value,  68  per  cent.  Numerous  feeding  experiments  have  shown  that 
eosin,  used  in  denaturizing  feed  barley,  is  generally  harmless.  It  has 
also  been  demonstrated  that  eosin  under  these  conditions  exercises  no 
unfavorable  effect  upon  the  character  of  the  meat  products,  fat,  etc. 
Cases  are  recorded,  however,  which  show  that  serious  illness  and  even 
fatal  results  may  follow  the  ingestion  of  eosin  barley  and  that  the  quality 
of  the  meat  products  may  suffer. 


BARLEY  89 

Eosin  itself,  in  quantities  present  in  the  material  under  consideration, 
is  not  poisonous,  but  may  become  so  when  combined  with  the  effects  of 
intense  Hght.  Eosin  belongs  to  a  group  of  photo-dynamic  substances 
which  influence  the  effects  of  light  on  albuminous  bodies  (light  sensitiza- 
tion). In  light  sensitization  very  small  amounts  of  sensitizing  agents 
are  required  to  bring  about  catastrophic  effects,  especially  when  the 
light  irritation  has  reached  a  certain  intensity.  Under  stabling  condi- 
tions eosin  is  harmless,  but  it  has  produced  serious  results  in  animals 
kept  out  of  doors  in  the  bright  sun  (inflammation  and  necrosis  of  the 
skin,  sunstroke,  heatstroke,  etc.).  The  author  himself  is  of  the  opin- 
ion that  the  objections  raised  against  eosin-treated  barley  are  not  founded 
upon  strong  evidence. 

Judging  or  grading.  The  grain  weight  of  the  large,  two-rowed  va- 
rieties of  barley  is,  on  the  average,  4.4  grams  per  100  grains,  and  2.4  to 
5.6  (average  3.8)  grams  for  the  small,  four  and  six  rowed  varieties. 
One  liter  of  barley  weighs  500  to  700  (average  600)  grams. 

Barley  that  has  been  rejected  by  distilleries  is  about  the  only  kind 
that  is  ever  used  for  feeding  animals  in  Germany,  and  this  has  frequently 
been  damaged  by  rain.  Such  grain  can  be  recognized  by  its  dull  and  un- 
even color  and  the  brown  and  blackish  tips  of  the  glumes.  Musty  odor 
and  bitter  taste  are  indications  of  a  spoiled  condition. 

Among  the  common  contaminations  may  be  mentioned  wind  oats,  rye, 
wheat,  oats,  earth,  parts  of  straw,  seeds  of  weeds  (vetches,  brome,  dodder 
[C  us  cut  a],  corn  cockle,  spurge,  morning  glory),  sand,  mouse  excrement, 
bracts  and  scales  of  Compositae,  parasitic  fungi  (Fusarium  heterospor- 
ium,   Ustilago,  Puccinia,  Erysiphe),  etc. 

Uses.  While  barley  constitutes  the  chief  concentrate  feed  for  horses 
in  southern  Europe  and  the  Orient,  it  is  used  only  to  a  limited  extent  in 
Germany.  While  it  gives  the  animals  a  fine  external  appearance  (full 
form  and  smooth  hair  coat),  it  does  not  furnish  the  energy  and  endur- 
ance furnished  by  oats  and  is  said  to  be  more  apt  to  cause  colic  and 
diarrhea.  If  used  at  all  in  Germany,  where  it  is  usually  cheaper  than 
oats,  it  is  as  a  substitute  for  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  oat  ration. 
According  to  Hendricks,  this  is  a  profitable  substitute,  and  while  animals 
maintain  their  efficiency  on  such  rations  they  also  improve  in  general  ap- 
pearance. It  is  fed  crushed  or  soaked  in  water  and  mixed  with  chaffed 
straw  or  hay.  Crushed  and  scalded,  or  made  into  a  slop,  it  is  an  excel- 
lent feed  for  run-down  horses. 

Barley  is  better  adapted  as  a  feed  for  fattening  cattle  and  milk  cows, 
crushed,  dry  or  scalded.  Its  most  extensive  use  is  in  the  feeding  of 
swine.  Barley  is  the  best  growing  feed  for  swine  over  three  months  of 
age.  For  younger  pigs  oats  are  preferable.  It  is  an  excellent  feed  for 
fattening  swine.  For  best  results  it  should  be  rough  ground  and  scalded. 
As  barley  is  a  high-priced  feed,  potatoes  are  substituted  for  it  wherever 
practicable. 


90  •  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

c.    Rye  and  Wheat 

Botanical  and  chemical.  The  cultivated  species  of  rye  and  wheat  arc 
derived  from  Secale  ccrcale  (rye)  and  the  various  species  of  Triticum 
(v^^heat).  The  v^^heat  plant  has  been  under  cultivation  much  longer  than 
rye.  The  latter  is  cultivated  chiefly  in  the  colder  central  districts  of 
Europe.  It  is  extensively  imported  into  Germany  from  Rumania,  Russia 
and  America.  Rye,  which  is  always  a  naked  seed,  and  wheat,  which  is 
usually  so,  are  free  from  strawlike  hulls  and  as  a  result  are  poor  in 
crude  fiber  (1.8  per  cent)  but  correspondingly  richer  in  digestible  organic 
matter:  Crude  protein  11  per  cent,  crude  fat  1.8  per  cent,  nitrogen-free 
extract  70  per  cent,  mineral  matter  2.1  per  cent,  digestible  albumen  7  to 
11  per  cent  in  full  grains  and  flat  grains  respectively,  starch  value  65  to 
72  per  cent  in  flat  grains  and  full  grains  respectively.  As  a  rule  the 
flat,  stunted,  shriveled  or  poor  grades  only  are  used  as  feeding  stuflfs,  the 
better  grades  being  used  for  human  food. 


c 

Fig.  45.     Grain  of  wheat.      (X  Fig.   46.     Grain   of   barley. 

2.)      a,    Dorsal;    b,   ventral    side;        (X   2.) 
c,  cross  section. 

Rye,  like  oats,  is  an  energy  or  force  producing  food  rather  than  a 
fattening  food.  When  fed  to  horses,  especially  fresh  in  the  sheaf,  it  is 
apt  to  cause  digestive  disturbances,  in  rare  cases  cerebral  affections  and 
founder  (laminitis).  Cracked  rye  and  rye  flour  are  also  more  apt  to 
cause  digestive  troubles  than  the  same  products  made  from  wheat.  Rye 
possesses  the  property  of  swelling  enormously  when  moistened  {2y2 
times  its  normal  volume). 

For  horses  not  more  than  half  the  oat  ration  should  be  replaced  with 
rye.  The  rye  should  always  be  fed  whole,  boiled  1^  hours,  and  mixed 
with  chaffed  feed.  The  change  must  be  made  gradually.  Draft  oxen 
may  receive  from  4  to  6  pounds  and  fattening  sheep  not  more  than  1 
pound  of  rye,  prepared  as  for  horses.  Boiled  rye  is  sometimes  given  as  a 
special  diet  to  cattle  run  down  in  condition  from  the  effects  of  disease. 
Swine  may  be  given  2  pounds  of  rye  daily  (for  fattening),  but  always 
cracked  and  scalded  or  steamed  and  mixed  with  other  feed,  such  as 
potatoes. 

Wheat  has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  historic  times.  In 
China  it  was  cultivated  three  thousand  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 
It  was  formerly  much  used  as  a  horse  feed.  It  is  richer  in  nitrogen  than 
any  other  grain  (12.6  per  cent  protein).  Many  varieties  are  known 
and   cultivated — winter,    summer,   awned,   awnless,    etc.,   and   these   are 


INDIAN  CORN  91 

again  divided  into  numerous  subvarieties.  In  addition  to  the  numerous 
varieties  of  Triticum  vnlgare  or  common  wheat  which  are  cultivated  in 
the  best  locaUties  in  Germany  (the  common  EngHsh  or  rough  wheat  and 
Polish,  hard  or  flint  wheat),  a  number  of  species  of  glumed  wheat  are 
cultivated,  namely,  T.  spelta  or  German  wheat  or  spelt,  T.  nionococcum 
or  one-grained  wheat  (Ein-korn  or  one  corn)  and  T.  dicoccum  or  two- 
grained  wheat  or  emmer.  Wheat,  like  barley,  is  chiefly  a  fattening  feed, 
and  less  adapted  for  energy  production.  Like  rye,  especially  in  a 
fresh  state,  in  the  sheaf,  for  example,  it  is  apt  to  cause  digestive 
troubles.  Laminitis  has  been  observed  following  the  feeding  of  wheat, 
rye  and  barley.  Wheat,  in  Germany,  is  used  mainly  as  a  feed  for  fatten- 
ing cattle  and  swine,  more  rarely  as  a  feed  for  horses  (stallions),  cracked 
or  cooked  for  the  latter. 

d.    Indian  Corn 

Botanical.     Indian  corn,  maize,  Zea  mays,  is   cultivated  in   Germany 
principally  as  a  soiling  crop.     In  southern  Wuertemberg  and  Baden  it  is 


O 


CO 


Fig.  47.  Grains  of  Indian  corn,  a,  Horse-tooth  maize — Dent  corn,  b.  Common  maize  or 
corn,     c,   Cinquantino. 

sometimes  raised  for  the  grain.  It  is  largely  imported  to  Germany  from 
the  United  States  (horse-tooth  maize),  Hungary  and  Rumania  (Danube 
maize)  and  Argentina  (La  Plata  maize). 

Chemical.  Indian  corn  is  characterized  by  its  high  content  of  crude 
fat  (5  to  6  per  cent).  Its  digestible  albumen  varies  between  6.5  and  8 
per  cent,  its  starch  value  81.5  to  83  per  cent,  nitrogen-free  extract  70  per 
cent,  crude  fiber  1.7  per  cent,  and  ash  or  mineral  matter  1.4  per  cent. 

Judging  and  grading.  The  weight  of  Indian  corn  by  measure,  for 
the  large  and  medium  grain  varieties.  Is  700  to  780  grams  per  liter,  and 
740  to  870  grams  per  liter  for  the  small-grained  varieties.  One  hundred 
grains  of  a  good  medium  grade  of  American  mixed  dent  corn  will  weigh 
31.4  grams,  white  dent  corn  37.7  grams,  Rumanian  dent  corn  19.12 
grams,  yellow  com  from  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  21.13  grams,  Turk- 


92  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

ish  maize  26.8  grams,  yellow  La  Plata  maize  25.0  grams  and  Cinquan- 
tino  12.5  grams. 

The  most  important  parasitic  fungus  affecting  Indian  corn  is  Ustilago 
maidis  (corn  smut).  The  minute  spores  of  U.  maidis  are  hardly  recog- 
nizable by  the  naked  eye  but  may  be  detected  by  the  black  color  which 
they  impart  to  the  hands  when  affected  shelled  corn  is  handled,  or  by 
the  black  scum  that  forms  on  the  surface  of  water  which  has  been  poured 
into  a  vessel  full  of  infected  grain. 

The  digestibility  of  Indian  corn  is  high,  and  it  agrees  well  with  all 
animals,  provided  strict  cleanliness  is  observed  to  prevent  fermentation 
or  spoiling  of  leavings  in  the  feeding  troughs  or  mangers.  Corn  spoils 
or  becomes  moldy  very  readily  in  the  presence  of  moisture. 

Uses.  Indian  corn  is  not  as  pronounced  an  energy-producing  food  as 
oats,  but,  like  barley,  has  good  fattening  qualities.  For  this  reason  it  is 
not  suited  to  replace  entirely  the  more  expensive  oats  as  a  horse  feed. 
The  softer  and  more  starchy  varieties  are  not  suited  to  replace  oats  to  a 
greater  extent  than  one- fourth  or  one-half  of  the  grain  or  oat  ration,  and 
only  then  when  the  comparative  prices  of  corn  and  oats  warrant  the  sub- 
situation.  Furthermore,  it  is  adapted  only  for  slow  working  animals  that 
are  able  to  masticate  the  grain  well  and  that  are  not  overfatigued.  The 
softer  and  more  starchy  varieties  may  be  fed  whole.  The  harder  va- 
rieties should  be  crushed  and  mixed  with  oats  and  chaffed  feed.  The 
crushing  should  be  sufficient  merely  to  crack  the  shell,  not  to  reduce  the 
grain  to  fine  particles. 

Indian  corn  is  an  excellent  feed  for  fattening  cattle,  sheep  and  swine. 
While  the  effect  of  the  oil  in  the  grain  when  fed  in  large  quantities  im- 
proves the  meat  product  of  cattle  and  sheep  by  lowering  the  melting 
point  of  the  tallow,  its  effect  on  the  quality  of  the  meat  products  of  swine 
is  the  opposite.  It  has  a  tendency  to  make  the  bacon  oily  and  the  meat 
soft.  These  objections  may  be  overcome  by  limiting  the  corn  grain  ration 
to  one-half.  Corn  is  a  less  desirable  feed  for  milk  cows  on  account  of 
its  softening  effect  upon  the  butter. 

The  methods  of  preparing  corn  for  the  feeding  of  cattle,  sheep  and 
swine  are  the  same  as  those  recommended  for  the  other  grains.  Some- 
times it  is  fed  whole  to  horses  and  sheep  after  having  been  soaked  in 
salt  water  for  24  to  48  hours. 

In  regions  where  Indian  corn  is  extensively  cultivated  it  is  sometimes 
ground  with  the  cob  to  induce  more  thorough  mastication.  In  countries 
where  the  imported  product  is  used  the  expense  of  transportation  would 
exclude  this  method  of  feeding. 

e.    Millet  and  Rice 

Millet  (Panicum  miliaceum)  and  rice  (Orysa  sativa)  are  used  as  ani- 
mal feeding  stuffs  in  a  limited  way  only.  Rice  is  used  chiefly  when  it  is 
low  in  price  or  when  unfit  for  human  consumption  on  account  of  a 
slightly  spoiled  condition. 


LEGUMES  93 

Millet  is  ground  or  cracked,  rice  is  hulled,  and  either  are  fed  raw  or 
cooked,  mixed  with  chaffed  feed.  Both  are  used  mainly  as  horse  feed 
as  substitutes  for  part  of  the  oat  ration.  Cooked  rice  is  also  widely 
used  as  a  feed  for  dogs  and  is  highly  prized  for  this. 

f.    Buckwheat 

Buckwheat,  although,  strictly  speaking,  not  a  grain,  but  a  member  of 
the  sorrel-wort  family  ( Polygonacese ) ,  to  which  belong  the  various  kinds 
of  dock,  knotgrass,  water  peppers,  smartweed  and  garden  rhubarb  or 
pie  plant,  is  very  similar  to  the  grains,  and  especially  to  wheat,  in  its 
nutritive  value.  It  contains  7.5  per  cent  digestible  albumen,  53  per  cent 
starch  value,  2  per  cent  crude  fat,  62  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract,  10 
per  cent  crude  fiber,  2  per  cent  mineral  matter  and  14  per  cent  of  water. 
When  cracked  or  coarsely  ground  it  is  occasionally  used  as  a  substitute 
for  part  of  the  grain  ration  of  heavy  work  horses,  but  also  for  working 
oxen,  fattening  cattle  and  swine.  It  is  cooked  for  the  latter,  and  is  used 
to  replace  one-half  of  the  grain  rations  of  these  classes  of  animals.  The 
feeding  of  buckwheat  is  only  rarely  followed  by  the  toxic  effects  men- 
tioned in  detail  on  page  51.  The  toxic  substance  is  present  in  the  hull. 
The  danger  of  possible  poisoning  may  easily  be  avoided  by  removing  the 
hulls  by  screening. 

2.    The  Legumes 

The  legumes  are  characterized  by  their  high  content  of  albumen  or  pro- 
tein, which  varies  between  14  and  30  per  cent.  Of  all  natural  feeding 
stuffs  (those  not  altered  by  commercial  processes)  the  legumes  are  the 
richest  in  protein.  The  soy  bean,  serradella  {Ornithopus  sativtts)  and  the 
lupines  have  a  high  fat  content  in  addition  (17,  8  and  4  to  7  per  cent 
respectively).  The  remaining  legumes  which  concern  us  as  feeding 
material  have  a  fat  content  equal  to  that  of  most  of  the  grains,  1.5  to  2 
per  cent.  The  mineral  content  (salts  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid)  is 
also  high  (3  to  4  per  cent)  compared  with  the  grains.  But  the  amount 
of  nitrogen-free  extract  is  considerably  lower.  The  starch  value  varies 
between  50  and  83  per  cent.  The  following  are  most  important  for 
feeding  purposes :  Peas,  beans,  vetches,  serradella,  soy  beans  and 
lupines. 

a.    Field  Beans,  Peas,  Vetches  and  Serradella 

Botanical. — Progenitors:  Field  beans  {Vicia  faha),  pea  (Pisum  ar- 
vense),  vetch  (Vicia  sativa),  serradella  {Ornithopus  sativus). 

While  Pisiim  sativum  (sugar  pea,  dwarf  and  climbing  pea)  are  culti- 
vated in  our  gardens  as  a  vegetable,  P.  arvense  (field  pea)  is  cultivated 
exclusively  as  a  forage  plant. 

Chemical. — Beans,  peas,  vetches  and  serradella  have  about  the  same 
chemical  composition  and  digestive  coefficient.  They  are  therefore  used 
as  feed  in  the  same  way.     They  contain  on  an  average  14  per  cent  of 


94  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

water,  17  per  cent  of  digestible  albumen  (serradella  14  per  cent),  67  to 
70  per  cent  starch  value  (serradella  49  per  cent),  1.6  per  cent  crude  fat 
(serradella  7.5  per  cent),  50  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract  (serradella 
33  per  cent),  6  per  cent  crude  fiber  (serradella  20.5  per  cent)  and  3  per 
cent  mineral  matter. 

Digestibility  and  xvholcsomeness. — They  are  digested  and  assimilated 
rather  slowly  but  very  completely.  On  account  of  their  high  content  of 
digestible  albumen,  they  are  specially  adapted  to  correct  protein  defi- 
ciency. Their  use,  however,  must  be  attended  with  care,  since  they  are 
apt  to  produce  digestive  disturbances.  This  peculiarity  is  due  to  their 
slow  digestibility,  their  constipating  effects  (tannic  acid),  their  pro- 
nounced property  of  swelling  with  the  absorption  of  water  and  their  tym- 
panitic action.  These  objectionable  qualities  are  most  pronounced  when 
the  seeds  of  the  plants  mentioned  are  immature,  insufficiently  reduced 
in  size  (too  coarsely  ground)  or  otherwise  improperly  prepared.  Vetches 
are  most  to  be  feared  in  this  respect,  then  peas.  Beans  are  much  less 
dangerous.  Large  rations  are  said  to  cause  cerebral  affections  in  horses, 
lumbar  affections,  roaring  and  laminitis  and  to  aggravate  existing  blind 
staggers  in  horses  as  well  as  to  cause  stiffness  in  lambs  and  pigs  (accord- 
ing to  Oppermann  also  in  sheep).  The  causes  have  not  been  definitely 
determined.  Some  authors  ascribe  these  troubles  to  an  accidental  ad- 
mixture of  Lathyrus  sativus  (chickling  vetch).  All  of  the  objections 
enumerated  are  at  least  partly  compensated  for  by  the  fact  that  these 
fruits  are  very  nourishing,  lasting  in  their  effects,  strength-giving,  and 
produce  firm  flesh  and  fat  (swine).  In  addition,  lukewarm  soups  made 
from  coarsely  ground  roasted  seeds  have  a  good  effect  in  chronic  diar- 
rheas. 

In  judging  or  estimating  the  quality  of  leguminous  seeds  much  weight 
should  be  placed  upon  proper  color.  A  reddish  tinge  in  the  yellow  va- 
rieties of  peas  is  said  to  indicate  freshness  and  good  quality.  Imma- 
ture yellow  peas  have  a  uniform  color  and  are  spotted  with  greenish 
areas.  Long  storage  produces  a  pale  color;  yellow  peas  become  gray, 
and  green  peas  become  yellowish  green.  Immature  green  peas  are  gray- 
ish green  while  properly  matured  green  varieties  are  pale  bluish  green. 
Peas  frozen  or  frosted  in  the  field  have  a  blistered  skin  and  glassy  seed 
lobes  or  cotyledons. 

Broken  or  otherwise  injured  peas  easily  become  the  prey  of  mites  and 
molds.  This  is  common  in  peas  that  have  been  attacked  by  borers  and 
weevils.  Moisture  favors  the  development  of  molds.  Low-grade  com- 
mercial peas  frequently  contain  vetches  and  field  beans,  which  however, 
does  not  impair  their  feeding  value.  Charlock  (poisonous)  is  a  frequent 
admixture.  Ground  peas  are  frequently  adulterated  with  pea-hull  bran, 
which  has  less  than  one-half  or  one-third  the  value  of  the  pure  meal. 
Indian  peas  (mother  peas)  are  sometimes  admixed  with  the  seeds  of 
Cicer  anetinmn  (chick-pea)  and  Cajanus  indicus,  which  are  reputed  to  be 
poisonous   for  horses,  causing  paralytic  symptoms.     The  chick-pea  has 


LEGUMES  95 

a  warty,  shrivelled  appearance,  is  somewhat  cone-shaped  and  varies  in 
color.  It  is  cultivated  in  southern  Europe,  north  Africa  and  India  in 
place  of  the  common  pea.  Similar  properties  are  possessed  by  Lathyrus 
sativus,  the  chickling  pea,  which  is  cultivated  in  southern  Europe. 

Vetches  are  frequently  admixed  with  broken  seeds  of  the  various 
grains  and  the  seeds  of  weeds.  Since  vetches  mature  very  unevenly,  it 
is  common  to  find  spoiled  seeds.  The  latter  probably  are  the  cause  of 
many  of  the  bad  results  obtained  in  feeding  them.  Cooking  or  steaming 
overcomes  many  of  the  possible  dangerous  consequences.  Vetches  have 
a  bitter  taste  and  for  this  reason  are  not  eaten  readily  by  horses. 

The  numerous  varieties  of  field  beans  may  be  divided  into  two  groups, 
the  small  horse  bean  or  field  bean  {Vicia  faba  minor),  with  oval,  angular, 
blue,  brown  or  greenish  yellow  seed  and  long,  smooth,  thick  pods,  and 
the  large  broad  bean  or  horse  bean  {Vicia  faba  nuajor)  with  flat,  kidney 
shaped,  grayish  yellow,  green  or  violet  to  black  seeds  and  slightly  bent 
or  curved  pods.  Beans  harvested  in  a  damp  condition  or  stored  in  a 
damp  place  easily  become  moldy.  Spoiled  beans  lose  their  luster  and 
show  traces  of  moldiness  either  on  the  outside  or  only  on  the  inside  of 
the  pods.  Occasionally  beetles  (Bruchus  granariiis  and  B.  riifimanus) 
attack  the  seeds.  The  various  species  of  Phaseolus,  cultivated  as  vege- 
tables, are  rarely  used  as  feed  for  animals. 

The  poisonous  Rangoon  bean  or  moon  bean  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies 
bears  a  resemblance  to  Phaseolus  imiltifiorus  (scarlet  pole  bean)  and  is 
occasionally  found  as  an  adulterant  of  feeding  stuffs.  It  contains  a  gluco- 
sid,  phaseolunatin,  from  which  large  quantities  of  prussic  acid  are  evolved 
(0.115  per  cent)  which  determines  their  toxicity.  It.  is  differentiated 
from  the  field  bean  (Vicia  faba)  by  its  spotted,  marbled  hull.  Dam- 
mann  and  Behrens  report  mass  poisonings  among  horses,  cattle  and 
swine  with  Java  beans  containing  prussic  acid.  According  to  these 
authors  the  poisonings  referred  to  were  caused  in  part  by  Pliaseolus 
lunatus,  P.  vulgaris,  Cajanus  indicus  and  a  species  of  Dolichos.  But 
not  all  species  of  Dolichos  are  toxic.  D.  lubia,  for  example,  is  cultivated 
as  a  forage  plant  in  Italy,  D.  unifJorus  and  D.  biflorus  in  East  India  and 
D.  sinensis  in  South  America. 

Uses.  Peas,  beans  and  white  vetches  are  used  as  feed  for  the  coarser 
breeds  of  work  horses,  as  substitutes  for  one-fifth  to  one-half  of  the  grain 
ration,  according  to  the  coarseness  of  the  breed  and  character  of  the  work. 
Colts  of  these  breeds  are  also  fed  from  2  to  4  pounds  of  peas  or  beans 
per  day,  as  substitutes  for  part  of  the  grain  ration.  Stallions  receive 
similar  amounts  during  the  breeding  season  to   stimulate  sexual  desire. 

The  softer  forms  of  leguminous  seeds  may  be  fed  to  horses  without 
special  preparation,  with  oats  and  chaffed  feed.  The  harder  varieties 
should  be  cracked  or  soaked  in  water  about  four  hours — 6  pounds  of 
peas  or  beans  for  5  quarts  of  water.  They  may  also  be  boiled  in  soft 
water,  or  in  hard  water  with  1  gram  (15  grains)  of  soda  added  for  each 
2  pounds  of  beans  or  peas.    Beans  or  peas  will  not  get  soft  when  boiled 


96  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

in  hard  water.  During  harvest  time  beans  and  peas  are  sunietinies  fed 
in  the  straw,  without  being  threshed.  To  prevent  constipation  or  undue 
accumulation  of  intestinal  contents  bran  may  be  fed  with  legume  rations. 
This  is  highly  recommended  and  in  case  of  constipation  absolutely  neces- 
sary. 

For  ruminants  the  legumes  are  a  good  fattening  feed  as  well  as  a  good 
energy-producing  feed.  Working  oxen  may  have  several  pounds  per  day 
during  the  working  season.  With  careful  feeding  they  are  also  good  for 
young  growing  animals  and  for  milk  cows,  but  should  be  avoided  for 
pregnant  animals.  The  unfavorable  action  upon  the  milk  secretion  which 
has  been  ascribed  to  legumes  does  not  seem  to  exist  in  fact. 

For  sheep  legumes  should  be  soaked  in  water  twenty-four  hours  before 
feeding;  for  cattle,  either  coarsely  ground,  crushed  or  soaked. 

For  swine  the  Leguminosse  are  a  good  fattening  feed,  producing  a  firm 
flesh  and  a  fat  that  melts  at  a  higher  temperature  than  ordinary  lard.  At 
the  finishing  stage,  however,  large  quantities  of  legumes  should  be  avoid- 
ed, especially  beans,  and  barley  substituted.  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
they  produce  a  bitter  taste  when  fed  at  that  stage,  but  this  is  contrary  to 
reports  of  Kuehn.  Legumes  should  be  cooked  and  crushed  before  feed- 
ing to  swine.  This  is  especially  necessary  in  the  case  of  beans  with 
leathery  skins. 

b.    Lupines 

The  lupines  are  cultivated  species  of  Lupinus  luteus,  L.  albus  and 
angustifolius  (blue  lupine). 

The  yellow  flowered  lupine  produces  the  richest  seeds.  They  contain 
38  per  cent  of  crude  protein,  4.5  per  cent  of  crude  fat,  25.4  per  cent  of 
nitrogen-free  extract  and  14  per  cent  of  crude  fiber.  Unfortunately  all 
lupines  have  a  bitter  taste,  which  is  imparted  to  the  milk,  and  this  fact 
materially  affects  their  feeding  value.  This  bitter  principle  may,  how- 
ever, be  removed  by  steaming  or  cooking  and  subsequent  leaching.  Some 
varieties  of  lupines  also  contain  a  toxin,  (mentioned  on  page  63),  which 
has  been  the  cause  of  fatalities  in  horses  and  sheep  (Schulz), 

Lupines  not  treated  for  the  removal  of  the  bitter  principle  must  be  fed 
with  the  precautions  mentioned  on  page  64  (experimental  feeding).  Sheep 
become  accustomed  to  them  more  readily  than  other  animals,  horses  not 
so  readily,  and  cattle  and  swine  sometimes  refuse  altogether  to  eat 
them.  One-half  pound  per  day,  coarsely  ground  and  mixed  with  chaffed 
feed,  is  excellent  for  sheep.  Sheep  in  a  run-down  condition  soon  recover 
flesh  on  this  ration.  Larger  rations  are  apt  to  be  followed  by  digestive 
disturbances,  cerebral  disorders,  irritation  of  the  urinary  organs  and, 
especially  in  horses,  constipation,  colic  and  laminitis. 

When  lupines  are  intended  to  be  fed  in  large  quantities  they  should 
first  be  leached  to  remove  the  bitter  principle,  which  also  removes  the 
toxins  that  may  be  present.  The  process  consists  in  steaming  under 
pressure  or  cooking  for  from  15  minutes  to  one  or  two  hours  and  then 


SOY  BEANS 


^ 


leaching  for  8  to  10  hours.  The  leaching  is  best  accomplished  in  wire 
baskets  set  in  running  water  (p.  30).  It  is  impossible  to  avoid  consider- 
able losses  of  nutrients  in  this  operation.  As  long  as  they  are  still  wet 
or  damp,  the  leached  lupines  spoil  rapidly.  To  avoid  spoiling  they  should 
be  fed  at  once  or  dried  artificially.  Horses  may  receive  10  pounds  of 
leached  lupines  per  day,  milk  cows  7  pounds,  fattening  cattle  as  high  as 
17  pounds,  ewes  with  lambs  ^  pound,  fattening  sheep  and  rams  1  pound. 
For  cattle  and  swine  the' leached  lupines  must,  in  addition,  be  crushed. 
Horses  and  sheep  take  them  whole  with  chaffed  feed.  The  transition 
to  lupine  feeding  must  be  made  gradually.  The  leaching  process  must 
be  conducted  with  care  and  the  product  tested  by  "taste."  Horses  usu- 
ally object  more  or  less  to  leached  lupines  and  swine  may  refuse  them 
obstinately. 

c.    Soy-Beans 
The  soy-bean,  or  soja  bean  (Soja  hispida.  Fig.  48)  is  cultivated  chiefly 
in  eastern  Asia  (China,  Japan,  Java)  and  in  recent  times  in  central  and 


Fig.  48.     Soy-bean   plant  with  ripe  pods. 


southern  Europe  and  the  Western  States  of  North  America.  In  Ger- 
many their  cultivation  has  as  yet  not  proved  very  profitable.  The  climate 
is  too  cold.  It  is  possible  that  soil  inoculation  with  specific  nitrifying 
bacteria  may  aid  in  the  production  of  increased  yields.* 

Their  seeds  are  characterized  by  a  high  fat  and  protein  content,   18 

•See  Bulletins  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  of  Kansas.— TransJator. 


98  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

and  35  per  cent  respectively.    As  a  fattening  and  energy-producing  feed 
soy  beans  are  most  successfully  fed  in  a  coarsely  ground  state. 

d.    Miscellaneous  Seeds 

Flaxseed,  derived  from  cultivated  flax  {Liniim  usitatissimum)  is  highly 
nutritious  and  of  great  dietetic  value.  Its  high  market  value  prevents 
its  more  extended  use  as  a  feeding  stuff. 

Flaxseed  contains  18  per  cent  digestible  albumen,  11.9  per  cent  starch 
value,  36.5  per  cent  crude  fat  and  23  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract.  ' 

The  nutrients  contained  in  flaxseed  are  in  a  high  degree  digestible. 
They  contain  a  lare  quantity  of  substances  that  dissolve  into  a  slimy  mass 
in  water  and  have  a  very  favorable  effect  upon  the  digestive  organs. 
Flaxseed  is  principally  used  in  special  diets  for  catarrhal  conditions  of 
the  digestive  organs,  in  conjunction  with  irritating  feeding  stuffs  (raw 
potatoes)  and  in  the  nourishment  of  weakly  animals.  It  is  also  used  for 
recently  weaned  calves  and  to  replace  the  fat  in  skim  milk.  For  the 
latter  purpose  about  1;^  ounces  of  ground  linseed  (linseed  meal)  should 
be  added  to  1  quart  of  boiled  milk  while  still  warm.  Linseed  is  also  fed 
to  mares  with  suckling  colts  and  to  milk  cows,  at  the  rate  of  1  pound 
per  1,000  pounds  weight,  in  the  form  of  meal,  dry  or  as  a  broth. 

The  seed  of  field  spiirry  (not  adapted  to  the  hot  summers  of  the 
United  States)  is  fed  to  horses  in  a  crushed  state,  and  to  cattle  crushed 
and  scalded.  It  is  well  liked  by  these  animals.  The  seed,  like  the  plant 
itself,  is  said  to  have  a  favorable  effect  upon  the  secretion  of  milk. 

Turnip  seed  and  rapeseed  (Brassica  rapa  and  B.  napa)  are  sometimes 
used  to  increase  the  fat  content  of  rations,  principally  for  fattening  cattle, 
in  quantities  up  to  3  pounds  per  day.  They  should  be  fed  ground.  Their 
dietetic  effect  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  oil  cake  prepared  from  the 
same  material. 

Hempseed  {Cannabis  sativa)  is  used  like  rape  and  in  addition  is  a 
common  feed  for  run-down  horses.  It  is  also  fed  to  breeding  males  to 
stimulate  sexual  desire. 

Beechnuts  (Fagus  sylvatica),  which  contain  10  per  cent  digestive  albu- 
men and  86  per  cent  starch  value,  are  occasionally  fed  to  swine  and  fat- 
tening cattle,  crushed  or  cooked,  in  moderate  amounts.  They  should  not 
be  fed  to  horses  because  they  contain  a  base  resembling  trimethylamin 
(fagin)  which  is  apt  to  cause  violent  poisoning  in  these  animals  (colic, 
cerebrospinal  irritation,  cardiac  paralysis).  Fed  to  excess  they  produce 
soft  bacon  in  swine  and  soft  butter  when  fed  to  cattle. 

Acorns  (Quercus  rubor)  and  horse-chestnuts  {Msculus  hippocastanum 
[^.  glabra,  Ohio  buckeye])  contain,  when  fresh,  1.5  per  cent  digestible 
albumen,  34  per  cent  starch  value  and  50  per  cent  water.  On  account  of 
their  high  water  content  they  are  subject  to  moldiness.  This  may  be 
overcome  by  storing  in  thin  layers,  frequent  turning,  artificial  drying  or 
reduction  to  flakes  and  subsequent  drying. 


MILLING  BY-PRODUCTS  99 

Dried  horse-chestnuts  are  easily  hulled.  When  used  fresh,  horse- 
chestnuts  are  crushed,  otherwise  ground,  and  improved  by  cooking  or 
steaming  and  mixing  with  other  feed.  Fattening  pigs  receive  upwards 
of  a  pound  per  head  per  day.  Swine  thus  fed  produce  a  "kernelly,"  firm 
bacon.  Milk  cows  are  fed  5  to  10  pounds  per  head  per  day,  sheep  up  to 
2  pounds  per  day.  Animals  must  be  gradually  accustomed  to  the  bitter 
taste.  The  bitter  taste  may  be  removed  by  leaching,  usually  after  sub- 
jecting the  horse-chestnuts  to  cooking  or  steaming.  Feeding  in  large 
quantities  should  be  avoided  on  account  of  their  constipating  effects. 
They  are  often  fed  in  small  quantities  for  their  stimulating  effect  on  the 
appetite  and  their  binding  effect  when  the  latter  for  any  reason  is  desired. 
They  are  said  to  cause  tannic  acid  poisoning  in  poultry.  When  fed  before 
they  are  fully  matured  they  are  apt  to  cause  serious  digestive  disorders  in 
horses,  cattle,  goats  and  sheep. 

Acorns  are  rich  in  a  bitter  principle  known  as  quercit  and  in  tannic 
acid.  They  agree  well  with  swine  (4  pounds  of  fresh  or  2  pounds  of 
dried  acorns  per  100  pounds  live  weight),  but  in  cattle  they  are  apt  to 
cause  gastroenteritis  and  obstinate  constipation.  They  are  used  mainly 
as  a  feed  for  fattening  swine  in  rations  of  2  pounds  per  day.  When 
properly  supplemented  with  other  concentrates  (rye  meal)  they  produce  a 
high  grade  of  bacon.  Occasionally  they  are  fed  to  sheep  that  run  on 
heaths  (1  pound)  and  to  fattening  cattle  (4  to  6  pounds).  Large  quanti- 
ties fed  at  a  time  are  not  wholesome,  especially  for  pregnant  sows.  For 
pen- fed  swine  it  is  best  to  cook  them.  The  water  in  which  they  were 
cooked  should  be  discarded.  The  milk  from  acorn-fed  cows  and  sows 
does  not  agree  well  with  the  young. 

V.    Milling  By-Products 

The  chief  by-products  of  the  milling  industry  that  are  used  as  feeding 
stuffs  are  bran  and  middlings.  They  occur  in  the  processes  of  hulling, 
grinding  and  clipping. 

Chemical. — The  brans  contain  chiefly  the  outer,  hard,  fiber-rich  tis- 
sues of  the  grain,  the  protein-rich  and  fatty  germ,  the  albuminous  aleur- 
one  layer  (Figs.  34  and  39),  and  frequently  the  glumes  and  husks  (oats, 
rice,  barley).  They  are  therefore  richer  in  fiber  than  the  whole  grains. 
Brans  made  from  pure  grain,  like  wheat  and  rye,  or  hulled  oats  and  bar- 
ley, however,  are  richer  in  both  protein  and  fat  than  the  whole  grain. 
They  always  contain  less  starch  or  carbohydrates. 

Middlings  are  made  from  the  wastes  that  occur  in  the  various  milling 
processes  and  which  contain  starchy  matter  and  gluten,  etc.  Compared 
with  the  whole  grains,  they  are  rich  in  digestible  carbohydrates. 

i3Trans!ator's  note:  The  term  "Futtermehl"  (feed  meal)  in  the  original  German  work  is  here 
translated  "middlings,"  to  which  it  corresponds.  It  shou'd  be  noted,  however,  that  this  term,  as 
used  in  the  United  States,  is  more  or  less  general  in  meaning  and  does  not  indicate  a  product 
of  constant  composition. 


100 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


Digestibility  and  wholesomeness. — Bran  and  middlings  are  easily  di- 
gested and  are  usually  well  assimilated.  They  might  be  regarded  as 
roughages  rather  than  concentrates. 

Given  in  small  quantities,  bran,  especially  wheat  bran,  has  a  good  die- 
tetic effect,  exerting  laxative  and  soothing  influences  on  the  intestinal 
mucous  membranes.  It  is  therefore  a  desirable  supplement  to  the  less 
digestible  and  constipating  leguminous  seeds  and  exerts  a  favorable  in- 
fluence on  catarrhal  conditions  of  the  digestive  as  well  as  the  respiratory 
organs  (distemper). 

Disadvantages. — Continued  and  excessive  feeding  of  bran  and  espe- 
cially of  middlings  has  a  laxative  effect  on  the  digestive  organs.  Bran, 
when  fed  in  quantities  of  12  to  20  pounds  per  day  (e.  g.,  millers'  horses) 
is  liable  to  produce  intestinal  concretions  Ctriple  phosphate),  or  urinary 
calculi  and  sediments  in  sheep,  due  to  its  rich  phosphoric  acid  content 
(Klimmer)".  Bran  is  rich  in  phosphoric  acid  but  poor  in  lime  salt,  and 
when  fed  in  conjunction  with  other  substances  that  are  deficient  in  lime. 


Fig. 
of  tbe 
cells; 


49.  a,  b.  The  three  outer  coats  or  skins 
wheat  grain;  c,  aleurone  layer;  d,  starch 
?,   starch  grains;  /,   fat  globules. 


like  hay,  it  leads  to  lime  starvation  (osteomalacia  of  lower  jaws,  bones 
of  the  legs  and  joints,  poor  teeth,  faulty  mastication,  chronic  gastro- 
intestinal catarrh). 

Middlings  are  heavy  and  pasty  in  character,  are  liable  to  get  "lumpy" 
in  the  stomach  and  ferment,  and  induce  catarrh,  tympanitis  and  colic, 
unless  thoroughly  mixed  with  plenty  of  chaffed  feed  or  water.  Damp 
flour  or  refuse  particles  of  dough  from  bakeries  or  the  kitchen  are  liable 
to  undergo  fermentation  and,  when  fed  to  animals,  may  produce  serious 
indigestion. 


KThe  various  forms  of  bran  are  very  rich  in  phosphoric  acid  compounds  and  contain,  in  addi- 
tion, considerable  quantities  of  magnesia.  The  ammonia,  which  is  formed  by  the  various  decom- 
position processes  that  take  place  in  the  alimentary  canal,  precipitates  the  phosphate  of  magnesia 
in  the  form  of  triple  phosphate  (phosphate  of  ammonia  and  magnesia).  The  latter  not  infre- 
quently accumulates  to  form  stones  and  concretions  in  the  intestines  of  the  horse.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  salts  of  phosphoric  acid  and  magnesia  may  be  absorbed  to  a  considerable  extent  and 
excreted  by  the  kidneys.  In  the  course  of  catarrhal  affections  of  the  bladder,  ammoniacal  fer- 
mentations may  be  set  up  and  convert  urea  into  ammonium  carbonate.  The  ammonia,  as  in 
case  of  intestinal  fermentation,  precipitates  the  phosphate  of  magnesia  as  triple  phosphate,  and 
cystic  stones  and  concretions  are  the  result   (sheep). 


MILLING  BY-PRODUCTS  101 

Determination  of  quality. — Pure  bran  contains  only  such  by-products 
as  are  formed  in  the  process  of  grinding  pure,  clean  grain  (Society  of 
German  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations). 

Brans  and  middlings  are,  to  an  excessive  degree,  liable  to  be  adul- 
terated, usually  with  other  brans  and  middlings  of  inferior  quality,  screen- 
ings, mill  sweepings,  ground  husks  and  chaff,  castor-oil  beans,  sawdust, 
fruit  pits,  olive  seeds,  sand,  infusorial  earth,  clay,  lime,  barite,  gypsum, 
chalk,  etc.  Screenings  contain,  on  the  one  hand,  defective,  undersized, 
undeveloped  and  broken  grains  and  harmless  weed  seeds,  many  of  them 
nutritious,  others  of  no  value  whatever.  On  the  other  hand  there  are 
frequently  present  poisonous  seeds  of  great  variety,  poisonous  darnel, 
cow  wheat,  yellow  rattle,  corn  cockle  and  charlock.  There  may  also  be 
parasitic  fungi,  ergot  and  smut,  mouse  excrement,  etc;  in  fact,  contami- 
nations of  almost  any  kind  or  variety,  the  feeding  of  which  would  be  a 
serious  matter.  While  feeding  experiments  have  not  shown  that  all  of 
these  contaminations  are  injurious  to  health,  it  is  best  to  regard  all  of 
them  with  suspicion.  As  with  other  poisons,  the  susceptibility  of  ani- 
mals varies  greatly  with  reference  to  the  contaminations  above  mentioned. 

In  considering  the  possible  harm  that  can  be  done  by  these  foreign 
admixtures  or  adulterations  it  is  not  sufficient  to  rely  upon  the  results  of 
a  few  individual  experiments,  but  it  is  well  to  be  governed  by  the  results 
of  general  experience.  Reports  of  mass  poisonings  of  cattle  and  espe- 
cially of  swine  that  have  been  fed  on  adulterated  bran,  middlings  and 
other  concentrates  are  frequent  enough.  Wheat  bran  imported  from 
Russia  into  Germany  was  found  to  be  contaminated  with  anthrax  spores. 
In  regard  to  poisoning  with  corn  cockle,  see  chapter  on  poisonous  plants. 
With  reference  to  the  detection  of  adulterants,  see  special  chapter. 

Since  it  is  frequently  no  easy  matter  to  detect  or  recognize  the  exact 
character  of  adulterants,  it  would  be  wise  not  to  purchase  bran,  middlings 
or  waste  products  of  the  vegetable  oil  industries  without  a  guaranty  of 
their  purity,  absence  of  screenings,  freedom  from  spoiled  admixtures,  etc. 
The  purity  of  these  products  should  further  be  controlled  by  the  en- 
forcement of  suitable  state  or  national  laws. 

Uses. — Fattening  cattle  may  be  given  from  4  to  6  pounds,  especially 
of  rye  bran;  fattening  swine  1  to  1.5  pounds  of  middlings  with  rye  bran, 
buckwheat  bran,  pea  bran,  or,  more  rarely,  wheat  bran  in  addition.  Milk 
cows  may  have  4  to  6  pounds  of  wheat  bran  or  barley  bran,  horses  up  to 
4  pounds  of  wheat  bran,  calves  and  fattening  sheep  1  to  1^  pounds  of 
bran  and  middlings.  For  horses  bran  is  best  in  the  form  of  a  mash  or 
slop ;  for  cattle  it  should  be  mixed  with  other  feed  and  moistened,  or  fed 
dry  by  itself ;  for  pigs,  scalded  or  cooked,  in  the  form  of  slop.  Middlings 
give  best  results  when  well  mixed  with  warm  water,  in  the  form  of  slop. 
With  reference  to  feeding  milk  cows  with  milling  by-products  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  feeding  of  large  quantities  of  wheat  bran,  rice 
feed  meal  and  millet  polish  have  a  tendency  to  make  soft  butter,  while 
the  by-products  of  the  leguminous  seeds  have  the  opposite  effect.     Rye 


102  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

bran  is  more  of  a  fattening  than  a  milk-producing  feed  and  makes  a 
coarse  grade  of  butter. 

Wheat  bran. — Wheat  bran  varies  in  composition  according  to  that 
portion  of  the  grain  which  predominates.  Bran  made  from  the  tips  of 
the  grain  is  rich  in  crude  fiber,  27  per  cent,  but  valuable  at  that.  After 
the  tips  have  been  removed,  the  grains  are  freed  from  their  skins  or 
seed  coats  and  thus  the  coarse  forms  of  bran  are  produced.  The  kernels 
are  then  crushed  and  ground  into  fine  flour.  The  siftings  of  the  latter 
constitute  the  fine  bran.  A  good  grade  of  bran  contains  the  skins  of  the 
grain,  the  aleurone  layer  and  parts  of  the  starchy  matter.  Chemically 
it  is  composed  of  water  13  per  cent,  digestible  albumen  9  per  cent  for 
fine  bran  and  11  per  cent  for  coarse  bran,  starch  value  42.5  to  48  per 
cent,  fat  4.5  per  cent,  nitrogen-free  extract  53  per  cent,  crude  fiber  9 
per  cent,  and  mineral  matter  5  per  cent,  containing  2.5  per  cent  phos- 
phoric acid.  Wheat  bran  is  used  chiefly  as  concentrate  feed  for  milk 
cows,  calves  and  horses.  For  the  latter  it  is  also  used  for  dietetic  pur- 
poses in  conjunction  with  legumes  and  potatoes,  or  for  catarrhal  condi- 
tions, in  amounts  varying  between  3  and  4  pounds. 

Wheat  middlings  contain  water  to  the  extent  of  12.5  per  cent,  digesti- 
ble albumen  11  per  cent,  starch  value  73  per  cent,  fat  3.3  per  cent,  nitro- 
gen-free extract  63  per  cent,  fiber  4  per  cent,  mineral  matter  2.5  per  cent. 
Middlings  are  used  chiefly  in  milk  substitutes  for  calves,  one-fifth  to  one- 
half  pound;  pigs,  one-tenth  pound.  It  is  administered  in  the  form  of 
warm  broths  with  bran,  flaxseed,  etc. 

Rye  bran  is  usually  not  dififerentiated  into  coarse  and  fine  grades.  The 
starch  value  is  47  per  cent,  digestible  albumen  11  per  cent.  Rye  bran,  as 
already  stated,  is  fed  principally  to  fattening  cattle  and  swine. 

The  milling  by-products  of  barley  and  of  oats  vary  considerably  in 
composition  according  to  the  methods  employed  in  clipping,  hulling,  etc. 
Barley  bran  and  feed  meal  (the  latter  sometimes  improperly  called  grits) 
are  the  by-products  of  the  clipping,  hulling  and  cleaning  processes  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  so-called  French  or  table  barley.  Barley 
flour  is  the  by-product  of  the  rolling  and  screening  processes  to  which  the 
cleaned  grain  is  afterwards  subjected.  The  value  of  these  w^aste  or  by- 
products depends  upon  the  proportionate  amounts  of  flour  and  hulls 
present  (microscopical  examination). 

Oats  in  the  course  of  their  manufacture  into  oatmeal  are  first  hulled. 
The  hulls  are  sometimes  ground  and  sold  as  oat  bran,  but  this  is  hardly 
worth  more  than  oat  straw.  In  the  process  of  hulling,  cleaning,  grinding 
and  polishing  the  oat  kernel  there  are  produced  first,  the  husks  or  hulls ; 
second,  oatmeal  dust,  consisting  of  the  hairs  at  the  tip  of  the  kernel  and 
of  which  there  is  a  great  volume ;  and  lastly,  oatmeal  proper.  The  value 
of  the  by-products  of  oatmeal  manufacture  is  subject  to  considerable 
variation,  depending  entirely  upon  their  composition. 

The  by-products  of  millet  meal  consist  of  the  almost  indigestible  and 
worthless  hulls,  rich  in  silicic  acid,  and  the  fine  meal  produced  in  polish- 


BREWERY  BY-PRODUCTS  103 

ing  the  hulled  seeds.    These  two  by-products  when  ground  together  con- 
stitute millet  bran. 

Buckzvheat  bran  is  a  by-product  of  the  manufacture  of  buckwheat 
flour  and  buckwheat  meal.  It  is  liable,  under  certain  conditions,  to  cause 
buckwheat  disease,  fagopyrism  (see  p.  53). 

Rice  feed-meal  is  produced  as  a  by-product  when  rice  grains  are  pol- 
ished. This  should  contain  no  hulls,  but  frequently  these  are  added  and 
ground  into  a  mixed  meal.  The  rice  hulls,  or  glumes,  are  fery  silicious 
and  consequently  hard  to  digest.  Even  when  quite  fresh,  rice  feed-meal 
contains  free  fatty  acids  and  consequently  has  a  sour  smell  and  an  acid 
reaction.  When  fed  to  cows  the  butter  is  soft  in  character.  Swine  fat- 
tened on  this  meal  produce  soft  meat  and  bacon.  This  efifect  can  be 
counteracted  by  simultaneous  feeding  of  pea  or  barley  meal : 

So-called  rice  bran  is  composed  chiefly  of  hulls  and  broken  kernels. 

Corn  bran  and  corn  feed-meal  are  characterized  by  their  high  fat  con- 
tent. 

In  the  factory  manipulations  of  the  seeds  of  legumes  the  outer  leathery 
skins  (almost  wholly  indigestible)  and  the  seed  germs  with  some  of  the 
starchy  matter,  etc.,  constitute  the  by-products. 

These  substances  are  frequently  ground  up  together  and  put  on  the 
market  as  corn  bran.  Compared  with  rye  or  wheat  bran,  this  material 
is  of  very  inferior  value. 

VI.    Brewery  and  Distillery  By-Products,  Etc. 

This  group  includes  the  by-products  of  (1)  breweries  (brewers' 
grains,  malt  sprouts,  hops  and  yeast),  (2)  distilleries  (distillery  slop), 
(3)  wineries  (skins  or  husks  of  pressed  grapes),  (4)  cider  presses 
(pomace  of  apples  and  similar  fruit). 

1.    Brewery  By-Products 

The  principal  steps  in  beer  brewing  arc  :  Soaking  the  barley  in  water,  followed 
by  spreading  it  out  in  a  layer  and  the  sprouting  of  the  grain,  and  the  formation  of 
a  ferment  which  converts  starch  into  sugar  (so-called  diastase  and  peptone) .  When  the 
sprouted  germ  has  attained  one  or  two  times  the  length  of  the  grain  the  germinating 
process  is  artificially  interrupted  by  drying  (55°  to  100°  C).  This  is  followed  by- 
partial  caramelization  and  the  formation  of  aromatic  substances. 

The  sprouts  (malt  sprouts)  are  then  removed  from  the  grain,  which  is  known 
in  this  stage  as  malt.  Malt  has  the  external  appearance  of  barley  but  possesses  a 
pronounced  sweet  taste. 

The  malt  is  then  digested  in  water  at  a  temperature  of  60°  C.  (malted)  until  the 
starch  has  been  converted  into  malt  sugar  and  dextrin  and  the  latter  have  become 
dissolved.  The  fluid,  mash,  is  then  separated  from  the  grain  (brewers'  grains) 
and  boiled  with  hops,  thus  made  into  wort,  filtered,  cooled  in  special  apparatus,  and 
then  fermented  in  special  vats  with  the  aid  of  yeast.  After  fermentation  is  com- 
pleted and  the  fluid  has  cleared  by  settling,  the  beer  is  ripe. 

Malt  sprouts  contain  12  per  cent  of  water,  11.4  per  cent  digestible 
protein  and  39  per  cent  starch  value.  The  lighter  in  color  that  malt 
sprouts  are,  the  more  easily  they  are  digested.  In  a  general  way  they 
are  a  valuable  concentrate  feeding  stuff  for  horses  (up  to  6  pounds), 
for  fattening  cattle  and  milk  cows  (2  to  4  pounds),  for  swine  (1  to  2 
pounds),  for  sheep  (>4  to  1  pound).    They  should  be  soaked  or  scalded 


104  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

for  cattle  and  swine  and  usually  fed  dry  to  horses.  Large  quantities 
are  said  to  cause  diarrhea,  paresis  of  the  paunch,  and  abortion  in  preg- 
nant animals. 

Malt  sprouts  attract  and  absorb  moisture  readily  and  are  consequently 
subject  to  moldiness.  Moldy  malt  sprouts  have  an  injurious  effect,  cause 
yellow  atrophy  of  the  liver  and  even  death.  In  the  inspection  of  malt 
sprouts  for  quality,  stress  should  be  laid  on  the  specific  malty  odor.  The 
sprouts  should  be  dry,  light  yellow,  not  dusty  nor  infected  with  fungi 
(moldy).  Adulteration  with  sand  and  other  mineral  matter  is  easily  de- 
tected by  floating  the  material  in  water. 

Brewers'  grains  contain  the  glumes,  fruits  and  seed  husks,  most  of 
the  protein  and  fat  and  all  the  starch  of  the  malt  (barley  grains)  that 
has  not  been  converted  into  sugar. 

Wet  brewers'  grains  contain  on  an  average  about  77  per  cent  of  water, 
3.5  per  cent  digestible  protein,  and  have  a  starch  value  of  13  per  cent. 
They  spoil  very  easily  (become  sour,  moldy,  or  decompose)  which  seri- 
ously affects  their  wholesomeness  and  their  palatability.  To  preserve 
them  they  are  frequently  dried  or  ensilaged  (pickled).  Dry  brewers' 
grains  should  have  a  light  gray  color  and  an  aromatic  odor.  Dark  color 
indicates  overheating,  which  impairs  digestibility,  or  it  may  be  due  to 
spoiled  material.  When  stirred  up  with  warm  water  they  should  have 
neither  a  sour  nor  a  moldy  odor.  Dry  brewers'  grains  contain  14  per 
cent  digestible  protein  and  have  a  starch  value  of  50  per  cent. 

The  German  and  Dutch  dried  brewers'  grains  are  made  from  pure 
barley  malt.  Brewers'  grains  imported  from  America  usually  contain, 
in  addition,  corn  and  rice  refuse,  while  the  Swedish  product  contains  a 
considerable  quantity  of  hulls.  They  are  therefore  more  strawlike  in 
nature. 

Unspoiled,  wet  or  dry  brewers'  grains  are  a  palatable  and  wholesome 
feeding  stuff.  Wet  brewers'  grains  are  fed  principally  to  milk  cows  and 
fattening  cattle  (20  to  40  pounds)  and  to  swine  (25  pounds  per  1,000 
pounds  live  weight).  They  are  not  suitable  for  sheep  nor  for  horses 
doing  heavy  work.  Horses  do  well  on  dry  brewers'  grains,  however,  5 
pounds  of  grains  being  given  with  4  or  5  pounds  of  oats  instead  of  a 
full  ration  of  10  pounds  of  oats.  The  dry  grains  are  also  good  for  milk 
cows  and  fattening  cattle  (6  pounds)  and  for  fattening  sheep  (up  to  1 
pound).  They  are  given  dry  or  slightly  moistened,  mixed  with  chaffed 
feed  or  root  crops.  They  are  not  so  profitable  for  swine  because  the 
latter  do  not  digest  them  as  completely.  The  feeding  of  spoiled  grains 
(moldy,  sour,  rancid)  to  horses  has  frequently  been  observed  to  result 
in  serious  poisoning,  gastric  catarrh,  nephritis  and  cystitis.  When  rich 
in  alcohol  they  may  produce  alcohol  poisoning. 

Spent  hops  are  also  occasionally  used  as  a  feeding  stuff.  When  fresh 
they  contain  25  per  cent  of  dry  matter.  Their  digestibility,  however,  is 
low  on  account  of  the  tannic  acid  that  is  present.  Their  nutritive  value 
corresponds  to  that  of  grain  straw.     Hops  are  wholesome  and  stimulate 


DISTILLERY  WASTE  OR  BY-PRODUCTS  105 

the  digestive  functions  and  the  appetite.    They  are  fed  to  milk  cows  and 
to  fattening  cattle.    For  horses  they  are  mixed  with  molasses. 

Beer  yeast  (Saccharomyces  cerevisia)  contains — 

Fresh  Dry 

Dry  matter  15    %  90    % 

Digestible  protein   6.8%  40.5% 

Crude  fat   0.3%  3  to   4    % 

Carbohydrates    5.0%  25  to  28    % 

Mineral  matter 1.0%  8.0% 

Starch  value 11.0%  65.0% 

Yeast  is  one  of  the  most  protein-rich  vegetable  feeding  stuffs  avail- 
able. Brewers'  yeast  has  a  bitter  taste  on  account  of  the  presence  of  hop 
resins.  This  bitterness  is  absent  in  "mineral  yeast,"  which  is  cultivated 
in  solutions  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  other  salts  and  sugar.  Cooking 
or  steaming  will  remove  this  taste  and  at  the  same  time  kill  the  yeast 
fungus  and  destroy  its  enzymotic  action  (alcoholic  fermentation  and  COg 
formation).  Otherwise  when  fed  in  conjunction  with  sugar  or  other  rich 
carbonaceous  feeds  the  carbonic  acid  formation  may  be  so  active  that 
fatal  tympanitis  results. 

The  thick  gruel-like  mass  obtained  by  cooking  yeast  may  be  fed  to 
horses,  milk  cows  and  fattening  cattle,  mixed  with  chaffed  feed  at  the 
rate  of  10  pounds  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight.  It  should  be  first  mixed 
with  coarse-ground  grain,  bran  or  steamed  potatoes.  It  must  be  fed 
strictly  fresh  because  it  spoils  readily  and  may  then  cause  dangerous 
poisoning. 

In  order  to  preserve  yeast  for  any  time  the  fresh  material  can  be  ster- 
ilized with  steam,  dried,  and  then  fed  in  its  pure  state,  in  the  form  of 
meal  slops  or  mixed  with  other  feeding  stuffs.  Yeast  is  also  put  on  the 
market  in  the  form  of  yeast  "zwieback,"  or  beer  yeastcake. 

Dried  "mineral  yeast,"  on  account  of  its  rich  protein  content,  is  also 
adapted  for  young,  pregnant  and  weak  or  "run-down"  animals.  The 
daily  ration  for  calves  and  colts  during  the  first  year  may  be  as  high  as 
300  grams  (three-fifths  of  a  pound),  for  horses  and  cattle  1  pound,  for 
pigs  at  5  weeks  of  age  1)^  ounces  with  weekly  increases  of  about  one- 
third  of  an  ounce  until  the  total  amounts  to  300  grams  or  three-fifths  of  a 
pound.  Sheep  may  have  two-fifths  of  a  pound  and  laying  hens  25  grams 
(five-sixths  of  an  ounce). 

2.   Distillery  Waste  or  By-Products 

The  by-products  of  distilleries  consist  of  so-called  distillery  slop.  The  starchy 
raw  material  used  in  this  industry  (potatoes,  corn,  rice,  etc.)  are  treated  with  malt 
(diastase)  which  converts  the  starch  into  sugar.  The  sugar  is  then  fermented 
with  yeast  to  produce  alcohol  and  CO2.  The  final  step  consists  of  the  separation 
of  the  alcohol  by  distillation.     The  residue  is  the  so-called  distillery  slop  or  wash. 

Potato  "slop"  contains  0.5  per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  2.5  per  cent 
starch  value,  0.6  per  cent  crude  fiber,  0.7  per  cent  mineral  matter,  0.1 


106  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

per  cent  free  acetic  acid  and  about  an  equal  amount  of  lactic  acid.  These 
slops  are  very  watery  (96  per  cent  water)  and  are  therefore  very  sub- 
ject to  decomposition. 

Uses. — Distillery  slops  are  fed  to  fattening  cattle  in  quantities  up  to 
15  gallons  per  day,  milk  cows  and  working  oxen  7y2  to  12)^  gallons, 
fattening  swine  and  sheep  about  2  to  3  quarts.  These  slops  are  rarely 
fed  to  horses,  except  possibly  to  working  horses  at  rest,  10  to  15  quarts 
per  day.  It  is  best  not  to  feed  these  slops  at  all  to  young  stock  or  to 
pregnant  animals.  When  fed  at  all  it  is  best  to  have  them  perfectly 
fresh  and  if  possible  still  warm.  Slops  that  have  become  cold  should  be 
reheated  before  feeding.  Feeding  troughs  must  be  kept  scrupulously 
clean,  because  any  material  that  may  be  left  decomposes  rapidly  and 
may  then  become  injurious  to  health.  On  account  of  the  acidity  of  slops 
and  their  deficiency  in  lime  salts,  from  1  to  2  ounces  of  prepared  chalk 
should  be  added  to  the  daily  ration.  In  addition  to  this,  care  should 
be  observed  that  sufficient  roughage  (10  to  12  pounds  per  day)  is  given, 
to  counteract  the  debilitating  effects  of  the  slops  on  the  digestive  organs 
and  to  supply  the  proper  amount  of  volume  in  dry  matter. 

Disadvantages. — Excessive  quantities  of  slops,  25  to  35  gallons  per 
day,  have  an  unfavorable  effect  upon  the  milk  secretion  as  well  as  on 
the  quality  of  the  meat  and  fat.  In  cattle  they  are  frequent  causes  of 
indigestion,  diarrhea,  "slop  cough"  and  eczema.  In  horses  they  cause 
colic,  in  pregnant  animals  abortion,  and  in  sheep  malignant  jaundice. 

"Slop  eczema"  is  observed  following  liberal  feeding  of  potato  slop, 
raw  potatoes,  potato  tops  and  waste  products  of  starch  factories.  It  is 
a  moist  form  of  eczema  attacking  chiefly  the  hind  feet  and  legs  below 
the  hock  (Johne).  These  objectionable  features  of  slop  feeding  may 
easily  be  avoided  by  the  conscientious  observation  of  strict  cleanliness 
and  moderation  in  feeding.  Serious  disease  has  been  observed  to  follow 
the  feeding  of  slops  that  were  made  from  spoiled,  rotten,  or  badly 
sprouted  potatoes.  Slops  rich  in  alcohol  may  cause  serious  and  even 
fatal  alcoholic  poisoning. 

Rye  and  corn  slops  are  richer  in  organic  matter  (protein,  fat  and 
nitrogen-free  extract)  and  contain  less  mineral  matter  than  the  foregoing. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  feed  more  than  7^  to  12^  quarts  of  corn  slop 
per  day  to  milk  cows,  because  larger  quantities  produce  soft  butter. 
The  seeds  of  corn  cockle,  already  referred  to  in  the  previous  pages,  are 
a  frequent  contamination  of  rye,  and,  when  present,  will  exert  their  pois- 
onous effects  in  the  slops  made  from  this  grain. 

Sugar  Refinery  slops  have  a  bitter,  acid  taste  and  are  not  relished  by 
animals.  On  account  of  their  high  salt  content  they  are  liable  to  cause 
diarrhea.  These  objections  may  be  partly  overcome,  however,  by  digest- 
ing these  slops  with  twice  their  volume  of  potatoes,  the  addition  of  pre- 
pared chalk  and  liberal  quantities  of  roughage,  hay  or  straw.  Fattening 
cattle  are  really  the  only  class  of  animals  that  should  have  this  material. 

To   give   them   keeping   qualities   these   various    slops   are    sometimes 


BY-PRODUCTS  OF  WINERIES  AND  CIDER  PRESSES  107 

dried  {"dry  slops").  According  to  the  raw  material  and  their  method 
of  preparation,  the  final  products  vary  considerably.  The  amount  of  di- 
gestible protein  varies  between  13  and  15  per  cent,  starch  value  ranges 
betwen  54  and  61  per  cent  in  corn  slop.  Their  digestibility  also  varies 
greatly.  Thus  the  digestive  coefficient  of  the  crude  protein,  as  determined 
on  sheep,  ranges  between  49  and  80  per  cent,  that  of  the  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract between  54  and  85  per  cent,  and  of  the  crude  fat  between  92  and 
94  per  cent.  The  commercial  dried  slops  are  mainly  those  made  from 
the  grains.  Dried  rye  slop  is  said  to  contain  about  8  per  cent  of  digesti- 
ble protein  and  41  per  cent  starch  value,  while  potato  slop  (dried)  con- 
tains about  9  per  cent  digestible  protein  and  has  a  starch  value  of  31 
per  cent. 

Quality. — Good  dry  slops,  like  dry  brewers'  grains,  should  be  free  from 
carbonized  matter,  have  a  fresh,  aromatic  odor  like  that  of  freshly  baked 
bread,  and  when  scalded  with  hot  water  should  have  neither  a  sour  nor 
a  moldy  smell. 

Adulterations  of  dry  slops  consist  of  rice  hulls,  peanut  hulls,  grain 
chaff,  corn  screenings,  ground  cornstalks,  mineral  matter  like  Hme,  etc. 

The  feeding  of  dry  slops  is  conducted  under  the  same  rules  and  pre- 
cautions as  that  of  dry  brewers'  grains. 

3.    By-Products  of  Wineries  and  Cider  Presses 

The  lees  (husks  or  skins,  etc.)  of  wineries,  in  wine  countries,  are  fed 
to  cattle  (5  pounds),  sheep  and  goats  (1  pound)  and  swine  (1>4  pounds), 
raw,  cooked  or  pickled  (ensilaged).  When  fed  in  excessive  quantities 
or  with  insufficient  dry  feed  they  may  cause  diarrheas  and  eczemas  sim- 
ilar to  those  caused  by  distillery  slops. 

The  grape  seeds,  when  thoroughly  dried,  are  a  good  feed  for  pigeons 
and  when  ground  may  also  be  used  as  feed  for  swine. 

Apple  and  other  fruit  pomace  is  sometimes  fed  to  swine,  sheep,  fat- 
tening cattle  and  working  oxen,  more  rarely  to  young  stock,  but  never 
to  milk  cows  the  milk  of  which  is  intended  for  the  manufacture  or  Em- 
mental  cheese.     According  to  Stutzer  this  material  is  hard  to  digest. 

VII.    Sugar  Refinery  By-Products 

The  by-products  of  beet-sugar  manufacture  consist  of  (1)  beet  pulp 
and  (2)  molasses. 

The  chief  phases  of  sugar  manufacture  are  as  follows : 

The  beets  are  thoroughly  cleaned  by  washing  and  scrubbing  with  machinery,  and 
reduced  to  pulp.  The  sugar  is  then  removed  from  the  latter  by  a  process  of  leach- 
ing, pressing  or  centrifuging.  The  waste  from  these  operations  consists  of  the 
so-called  beet  pulp.  The  fluid  product  which  contains  the  sugar  in  solution  is  then 
clarified  by  boiling  and  precipitation  of  the  albuminous  matter  and  treated  with 
lime  to  precipitate  organic  substances  (organic  acids),  filtered,  and  the  excess  lime 
removed  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  then  again  filtered  through  animal  (bone)  char- 
coal, which  also  has  a  bleaching  effect  on  the  solution.  The  juice  thus  purified  is 
evaporated  in  a  vacuum  until  the  proper  consistency  is  attained,  then  run  into 
crystallizing  vats.    The  filtrate  is  still  further  evaporated  and  set  aside  to  complete 


108  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

crystallization.  The  final  filtrate  is  a  noncrystallizable  brown  mass,  syrup  or  molasses. 
This  is  subjected  to  the  strontium  process  and  the  last  traces  of  crystallizable  sugar 
are  extracted.  This  "molasses"  is  then  either  utilized  as  a  feeding  stuff  or  incin- 
erated and  worked  for  potash  and  calcium  chlorid. 

Beet  pulp  in  its  fresh  state,  after  having  been  pressed  to  remove  some 
of  the  water,  is  still  a  very  w^atery  material  (85  to  90  per  cent.  It  con- 
tains 0.6  per  cent  digestible  protein,  a  starch  value  of  10.5  per  cent,  crude 
fiber  3  per  cent  and  mineral  matter  0.7  per  cent.  Beet  pulp  prepared  ac- 
cording to  Stefifen  is  much  richer  in  dry  matter  (30  per  cent).  It  is  the 
result  or  product  of  a  special  process  of  sugar  manufacture  in  which 
only  the  "purer"  portions  of  the  beet  juice  are  extracted. 

Beet  pulp  ferments  or  decomposes  very  easily,  and  to  overcome  this 
disadvantage  it  tnay  be  ensilaged  or  dried. 

Fresh  or  ensilaged  beet  pulp  is  fed  chiefly  to  cattle.  Milk  cows  re- 
ceive 40  pounds  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  fattening  cattle  60  to  80 
pounds,  fattening  sheep  and  swine  60  pounds.  Horses  at  rest,  or  under 
light  work,  may  receive  20  to  40  pounds  per  head  per  day,  but  this  is  not 
a  common  practice.  Beet  pulp  is  not  suitable  for  hardworking  horses 
nor  for  young  stock  or  pregnant  animals.  It  must  be  fed  with  the  great- 
est care,  and  it  is  usually  best  not  to  feed  it  at  all  to  such  animals.  Milk 
cows  should  not  receive  larger  quantities  than  indicated,  especially  not 
when  the  balance  of  the  ration  is  deficient  in  protein  and  fat.  Exces- 
sive quantities  of  beet  pulp  give  rise  to  hard,  white  butter  of  inferior  or 
bad  taste,  and  the  milk,  if  feed  to  young  animals,  often  causes  diarrhea. 
When  feeding  wet  beet  pulp  to  ruminants  care  should  be  observed  that 
a  sufficient  amount  of  dry  matter  (roughage)  is  provided. 

Dry  beet  pulp,  if  fresh  and  properly  stored,  contains  10  to  11  per  cent 
of  water,  3.6  per  cent  digestible  protein,  and  has  a  starch  value  of  52 
per  cent.  It  absorbs  moisture  readily  and  swells  considerably  in  water. 
It  should  have  a  pleasant  odor,  be  free  from  foreign  admixtures  and 
moldiness  and  have  a  grayish-brown  color.  Horses  may  have  4  to  5 
pounds,  milk  cows  6  to  9  pounds,  fattening  cattle  10  to  15  pounds,  work- 
ing oxen  8  to  12  pounds,  calves  1  to  4  pounds,  per  day  and  per  head, 
administered  with  warm  slops,  diluted  molasses  or  warm  water.  Swine 
may  have  1^  to  3  pounds  with  skim  milk,  whey  or  diluted  molasses, 
and  sheep  3  to  4  pounds,  dry.  In  addition  lime  and  prosphates  should  be 
given.  Injurious  effects  are  not  as  liable  to  follow  the  feeding  of  dry 
beet  pulp  as  when  fresh  or  ensilaged  pulp  is  fed.  Dried  beet  pulp  is 
sometimes  made  into  bricks,  to  facilitate  handling  and  improve  keep- 
ing qualities.  These  should  be  thoroughly  broken  up  before  feeding 
and  soaked  for  from  4  to  6  hours,  otherwise  they  may  lead  to  obstinate 
cases  of  choking. 

Molasses  is  a  viscous,  dark  brown  mass  with  a  characteristic  odor  and 
usually  an  alkaline  reaction.  If  improperly  made  or  preserved  it  readily 
sours.  It  contains  a  varying  amount  of  water,  on  the  average  22  per 
cent,  and  not  over  32  per  cent  if  unadulterated ;  60  per  cent  nitrogen-free 


MOLASSES  109 

extract  (sugar)  and  7  per  cent  mineral  matter.  The  crude  protein,  which 
is  present  to  the  extent  of  about  1.0  per  cent,  consists  almost  entirely  of 
nitrogenous  substances  of  a  nonalbuminous  nature  (betain,  glutamic 
acid,  aspartic  acid,  leucin,  ammonia,  etc.).  Thus  molasses  is  poorer  in 
albumen  or  digestible  protein  than  any  other  feedingstuff.  The  mineral 
matter  consists  of  potash  78  per  cent,  sodium  13  per  cent,  lime  0.3  per 
cent,  magnesia  0.4  per  cent,  iron  and  phosphoric  acid  0.7  per  cent,  sul- 
phuric acid  1.6  per  cent  and  chlorin  7.5  per  cent.  Its  starch  value  is 
48  per  cent. 

For  feeding  purposes  molasses  is  diluted  with  sufficient  warm  water  to 
make  it  readily  miscible  with  other  feedingstuffs,  like  chaffed  feed,  dry 
pulp,  bran,  etc.  To  avoid  diarrhea  the  feeding  of  molasses  should  begin 
with  minimum  quantities,  which  may  be  gradually  increased.  An  abun- 
dance of  dry  feed  should  always  be  given  with  it.  Moderate  quantities 
of  molasses  are  very  wholesome  for  horses;  they  reduce  the  number  of 
cases  of  colic  and  moderate  the  course  of  the  disease  should  it  appear. 
It  is  therefore  regarded  as  a  good  dietetic  feed,  but  does  not  seem  suit- 
able to  substitute  for  any  large  portion  of  the  oat  ration,  especially  for 
horses  doing  hard  or  fast  work.  Large  rations  of  molasses  should  not 
be  given  in  any  case;  they  are  liable  to  produce  diarrhea  and  to  over- 
tax the  kidneys.  Excessive  rations  of  molasses  may  also  produce 
cutaneous  exanthemas  (grease),  general  weakness,  paralytic  symptoms 
and  toxic  laminitis.  Proper  quantities  for  horses  are  about  3  pounds 
per  day,  milk  cows  2^  pounds,  working  oxen  3  to  4  pounds,  fattening 
cattle  and  sheep  4  pounds,  swine  5  pounds,  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight. 
Molasses  should  be  avoided  for  animals  in  advanced  pregnancy  on  ac- 
count of  its  reputed  tendency  to  cause  abortion.  But  the  latter  is  prob- 
ably the  case  only  when  the  material  is  spoiled.  It  is  not  a  regular  oc- 
currence at  any  rate  (Albrecht).  In  stable-fed  animals  that  suffer  from 
the  eft'ects  of  alkaline  earth  deficiency,  especially  the  salts  of  potassium, 
molasses  has  proved  to  be  an  actual  curative  agent. 

To  facilitate  the  handling  of  the  product,  dry  molasses  mixtures  have 
been  prepared.  These  consist  of  various  kinds  of  pulps  containing  from 
30  to  40  per  cent  of  molasses,  chaffed  straw  and  40  per  cent  of  molasses, 
wheat  bran  and  dried  distillery  slop  with  50  per  cent  of  molasses,  corn 
germ  meal  and  coconut  cake  with  60  per  cent  of  molasses,  brewers' 
grains  with  50  to  60  per  cent  of  molasses,  palm  seed  cake  with  60  to 
70  per  cent  of  molasses,  etc.  Voigt  recommends  palm-seed  and  cocoa- 
nut  molasses  feed  as  a  substitute  for  oats  and  com.  This  is  cheaper 
than  corn  and  only  half  the  price  of  oats.  Good  results  were  obtained 
in  feeding  this  mixture  to  omnibus  horses.  These  molasses  pulps  are 
especially  adapted  for  milk  cows  (soaked  in  three  or  four  times  their 
volume  of  water  for  12  hours),  as  well  as  for  horses.  Swine  do  not 
like  them  so  well.  Peat  has  been  used  as  an  absorbent  for  molasses, 
but  the  former  is  entirely  indigestible.  It  has  also  been  used  to  prevent 
the  intestinal  absorption  of  the  potash  salts  which  are  very  abundant  in 


110  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

molasses,  but  in  this  respect  peat  has  no  advantage  over  easily  procurable 
digestible  absorbents.  Peat  has  a  tendency  to  increase  the  keeping  qual- 
ities of  molasses,  but  oil  cake,  malt  sprouts,  brewers'  grains,  etc.,  have 
the  same  advantages.  Ground  straw  and  molasses  (in  the  proportion  of 
1  to  3)  also  has  good  keeping  qualities.  Peat-meal  molasses  contains  80 
per  cent  of  molasses  and  has  proved  suitable  or  wholesome  for  horses, 
cattle,  swine  and  calves. 

The  objection  to  peat-molasses  which  have  just  been  enumerated  apply 
also  to  the  commercial  "Klimaxmelasse,"  which  is  a  compound  of  horse- 
chestnut  meal,  twig  meal  and  molasses.  So-called  pepton  feed,  which 
contains  no  peptone,  is  not  much  better.  It  consists  of  molasses,  blood 
and  the  stomach  contents  of  slaughtered  animals.  So-called  milk-mo- 
lasses contains  about  50  per  cent  of  molasses  and  the  curd  of  skim  milk, 
peanut  shells,  oat  hulls,  potato  pulp  and  sometimes  a  little  inferior  bran. 
Blood-molasses  consists  of  molasses,  small  amounts  of  dried  blood,  and 
peanut  shells,  millet-seed  hulls,  rice  and  oat  hulls,  which  latter  are  all 
more  or  less  indigestible. 

So-called  Hansa-blood-molasses  contains,  according  to  Zellner,  18  per 
cent  protein  and  fat  and  20  per  cent  sugar.  "Cibus"  is  the  trade  name 
of  a  mixture  of  molasses  and  converted  cellulose.  "Tumelin"  is  a  mix- 
ture of  beet-sugar  molasses  and  cornstalks  with  an  addition  of  linseed 
meal  and  phosphate  of  lime.  "Tutolin"  contains  cornstalks,  salt,  phos- 
phate of  lime  and,  for  the  greater  part,  molasses.  Molasses  cakes  con- 
sist of  potato  pulp,  rye  bran  and  molasses. 

Valuation. — In  feeding  molasses  mixtures  the  molasses  content  and  the 
character  and  wholesomeness  of  the  absorbents  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. Compounds  of  which  the  absorbents  are  unknown  should 
be  avoided.  Their  cost  is  frequently  out  of  all  proportion  to  their  real 
value.  Very  frequently  good  money  is  expended  for  peanut  and  millet 
hulls,  potato  peelings,  rice  chaff,  ground  fruit  pits,  sawdust,  etc.;  in  a 
word,  refuse,  that  no  one  with  good  sense  would  pick  up  from  the  street 
to  use  as  feed  for  his  cattle  (Kellner).  Not  only  entirely  worthless  but 
very  frequently  spoiled  and  injurious  substances  are  mixed  with  mo- 
lasses and  sold  to  the  unsuspecting  consumer.  It  is  necessary  that  every 
purchase  of  mixtures  of  this  character  be  examined  as  to  the  nature  of 
its  contents  and  that  a  guaranty  of  the  composition,  protein,  fat,  sugar 
and  water  accompany  the  same.  The  water  content  is  of  importance 
because  upon  it  depend  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  mixture.  In  peat- 
molasses  the  water  content  should  not  exceed  25  per  cent  and  in  other 
molasses  mixtures  20  per  cent.  The  objectionable  features  of  these  mix- 
tures may  be  overcome  by  purchasing  the  pure  molasses  and  making 
home  mixtures,  or  by  various  club  arrangements.  A  saving  of  actual 
money  is  also  accomplished  by  such  procedure. 

"Roborin  concentrate  feed"  is  another  molasses  mixture  that  should 
be  mentioned  here.  It  contains,  besides  9  per  cent  of  sugar,  a  lime- 
blood-albumen  preparation   (47  per  cent  albumen,   12  per  cent  mineral 


STARCH  FACTORY  BY-PRODUCTS  111 

matter,  including  phosphate  of  lime)  as  principle  constituent.  It  is 
generally  considered  wholesome  and  nutritious  for  horses  and  milk  cows. 
Unfortunately  it  is  relatively  high  priced. 

Disadvantages. — Sickness  has  often  been  observed  following  the  feed- 
ing of  molasses  and  beet  pulp,  especially  in  oxen  and  horses.  This  has 
sometimes  been  referred  to  as  beet-pulp  disease.  The  symptoms  mani- 
fest themselves  as  indigestion,  lumbar  weakness,  cerebral  disturbances, 
edema  of  the  lower  portions  of  the  limbs,  hemaglobinuria,  intestinal 
paralysis,  colic,  skin  eruptions,  laminitis,  etc.  Postmortem  examination 
reveals  dropsical  conditions  and  erosions  and  ulcers  of  the  abomasum 
(?).  These  affections  are  particularly  to  be  feared  when  slops  and  in- 
sufficient dry  roughage  are  fed  with  excessive  rations  of  molasses.  To 
what  extent  the  high  potash  content  of  molasses  may  be  responsible  for 
these  conditions  is  yet  to  be  determined.  At  any  rate,  these  objections 
may  easily  be  avoided  by  care  in  mixing  and  adjusting  the  rations. 

H.  and  C.  Stolzenberg  succeeded  in  obtaining  alcoholic  extracts  of  sub- 
stances with  a  nauseous  taste  which,  injected  into  guinea-pigs,  produced 
weakness,  dullness  and  loss  of  hair. 

"Feed  sugar,"  that  is,  sugar  contaminated  with  molasses,  has  been 
found  to  serve  as  a  good  feed  for  horses,  5  pounds  for  800  pounds  live 
weight.  The  transition  to  this  character  of  feed  should  be  gradual.  In- 
creased consumption  of  water  is  not  to  be  feared.  This  material  is  also 
a  good  feed  for  swine,  less  so  for  fattening  cattle  and  sheep,  but,  ac- 
cording to  Malpeaux,  excellent  for  the  latter.  Its  frequently  reported 
injurious  effects  are  not  based  upon  fact. 

According  to  Kellner  it  would  seem  to  be  of  advantage  to  displace 
the  manufacture  of  sugar  feed  with  the  manufacture  of  beet  pulp  ac- 
cording to  the  Steffen  process. 

VIII.    Starch  Factory  By-Products 

Starch  factory  by-products,  important  as  feeding  stuffs,  are  the  fol- 
lowing: (1)  Of  potatoes,  potato  pulp  or  fiber;  (2)  of  wheat,  spent 
grains,  slop  or  wash  and  gluten ;  (3)  of  rice,  rice  slop  or  wash  and  gluten ; 
(4)  of  corn,  com  germ,  com  oil  and  corn  glucose  cake. 

Potato  pulp  is  the  residue  that  remains  after  the  starch  has  been  re- 
moved (washed)  from  the  crushed  potatoes.  It  contains  the  peel  or  skin, 
fiber  and  part  of  the  starch,  and  constitutes  a  very  insiped  and  watery 
feeding  stuff.  When  fresh  it  contains  from  3  to  10  per  cent  of  dry  mat- 
ter, which  percentage  is  increased  to  25  or  30  after  the  "surplus"  water 
has  been  expressed,  and  to  86  per  cent  when  subsequently  dried.  Of 
the  dry  matter  about  50  to  60  per  cent  represents  starch,  3  to  5  per  cent 
crude  protein,  (0  per  cent  digestible  albumen),  0.1  per  cent  crude  fat 
and  from  10  to  12  per  cent  fiber. 

Fresh  potato  pulp,  which  is  very  watery,  is  subject  to  rapid  decompo- 
sition. It  must  therefore  be  fed  as  fresh  as  possible,  or  dried  or  en- 
silaged. 


112  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

Fattening  cattle  receive  up  to  60  pounds  of  fresh  potato  pulp,  milk 
cows  40  to  50  pounds,  swine  up  to  20  pounds,  per  head  per  day.  Scald- 
ing, cooking  or  steaming,  especially  for  swine,  is  advisable.  Large 
rations  are  liable  to  produce  gastro  intestinal  catarrhs,  diarrheas,  and 
milk  of  poor  quality. 

The  feeding  of  spoiled  potato  pulp  has  been  known  to  produce  ser- 
ious disease.  Dried  and  ground  potato  pulp  may  be  fed  to  horses  and 
fattening  cattle  in  quantities  of  from  5  to  7  pounds  per  head  per  day, 
milk  cows  4  pounds. 

In  the  manufacture  of  wheat  starch,  the  broken  grains  are  subjected 
to  a  process  of  fermentation,  the  starch  and  small  grain  particles  are 
removed  by  a  process  of  washing,  and  the  so-called  spent  grains  remain 
as  refuse.  The  latter  contains  the  hulls  or  skins,  germs  and  gluten. 
The  residue  from  the  washing  of  the  crude  starch  consists  of  slop  or 
wash  that  is  very  rich  in  gluten  and  starch.  In  the  more  modern  pro- 
cesses of  starch  manufacture  wheat  flour,  instead  of  the  whole  grain,  is 
used.  The  flour  is  washed  and  "worked"  through  screens.  The  residue 
is  a  pure,  sweet  gluten. 

All  of  these  by-products  are  rich  in  water  and  spoil  readily.  They  are 
characterized  by  their  high  protein  and  fat  content  and,  unless  spoiled, 
constitute  a  good  feedingstuff  for  fattening  cattle,  milk  cows  and  swine. 
To  preserve  the  gluten  it  is  dried.  This  very  expensive  gluten,  extracted 
from  wheat  flour,  and  corn  and  rice  gluten,  are  the  feeding  stuffs  richest 
in  protein  at  our  disposal  {76  per  cent  protein). 

Rice  wash  and  rice  gluten  (the  latter  is  also  dried)  correspond  in  a 
general  way  to  the  by-products  of  the  manufacture  of  wheat  starch  of  the 
same  name. 

Corn  germ  cake  and  corn  oil  cake  contain  the  germs,  skins,  gluten 
and  starch  waste.  Corn  glucose  cake  or  "Maizena"  contains  the  skins 
and  more  or  less  gluten.  Gluten  meal  consists  chiefly  of  gluten  and  a 
few  skins.  Corn  germ  cakes  contain  14  per  cent  of  digestible  albumen, 
a  starch  value  of  72  per  cent,  fat  7  to  11  per  cent.  Maizene  contains 
21  per  cent  of  digestible  albumen  and  3  per  cent  of  fat.  Corn  gluten 
meal  contains  32  per  cent  digestible  albumen  and  2  per  cent  of  fat. 
The  nutrients  are  easily  digestible,  but  more  suitable  for  the  production 
of  fat  than  of  energy,  and  when  fed  in  large  quantities  produce  soft 
butter  and  soft  bacon.  They  are  well  suited  for  fattening  cattle  and 
are  used  to  some  extent  for  feeding  milk  cows  and  young  stock. 

IX.   By-Products  of  Oil  Production 

Vegetable  oils  and  fats  are  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  plants  rich  in  these  sub- 
stances. They  are  extracted  by  subjection  to  repeated  hydraulic  pressure,  the  seeds 
being  placed  in  specially  constructed  fabric  bags,  or  the  fats  and  oils  dissolved 
irom  the  previously  cleaned,  hulled  and  broken  seeds  (sometimes  at  high  tem- 
peratures, 90"  to  100°  C).  Sometimes  the  material  is  subjected  to  both  processes. 
The  extract  solvents  used  are  carbon  disulphid,  petroleum  ether,  benzine,  carbon 
tetrachlorid,  and  other  volatile  solvents  of  oils  and  fats.  The  oil-containing  seeds 
are  thus  deprived  of  their  oily  and  fatty  parts  only,  the  other  nutrients  being 
retained,  practically  unchanged  and  easily  digestible. 


BY-PRODUCTS  OF  OIL  PRODUCTION  113 

The  refuse  of  these  processes  consists  of  oil  cake  or  cake  meal  and 
extract  meal. 

Digestibility  and  wholesomeness. — Vegetable  oil  by-products  are  rich 
in  fat  and  protein  and  highly  digestible  (80  to  90  per  cent).  The  digesti- 
bility of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  and  crude  fiber  varies  considerably 
according  to  the  amount  of  hulls  and  skins  present.  Since  these  by- 
products have  a  weakening  effect  upon  the  digestive  organs  and  not 
infrequently  cause  diarrhea,  they  should  be  supplemented  with  salt  or 
with  feedingstuffs  containing  this  mineral. 

Disadvantages. — When  improperly  stored,  the  by-products  in  question, 
especially  when  they  contain  approximately  20  per  cent  of  water  (normal 
10  to  12  per  cent),  are  liable  to  become  rancid  or  moldy  or  to  decompose 
through  the  activity  of  bacteria.  Thus  fed,  they  are  liable  to  disturb  the 
health,  to  a  slight  or  to  a  very  serious  extent,  or  even  to  cause  fatal  dis- 
ease. 

Valuation. — Oil  cakes  are  considerably  richer  in  fats  than  the  meals 
obtained  from  extract  processes.  The  latter  are  often  put  on  the  mar- 
ket under  the  misleading  name  of  oil-cake  meal.  The  guaranties  on 
these  products  are  often  given  in  general  or  common  terms  for  the 
protein  and  fat,  which  is  intended  to  give  the  impression  that  the  ma- 
terial in  question  is  a  press  product,  not  an  extract  product,  and  conse- 
quently rich  in  oil. 

In  addition  to  fraudulent  practices  of  the  character  just  enumerated, 
the  by-products  of  vegetable  oil  manufacture  are  frequently  adulterated 
with  the  seeds  of  worthless  weeds,  hulls,  shells,  peelings,  and  with  other 
low-grade  oil  cakes  and  oil  meals,  or  even  mineral  matters.  The  great- 
est care  should  therefore  be  observed  in  the  purchase  of  these  materials 
and  a  guaranty  of  the  exact  content  of  protein  and  fat  required,  as  well 
as  a  guaranty  of  purity  and  soundness.  In  addition,  the  guaranty  should 
be  controlled  by  a  state  institution  that  makes  it  its  business  to  verify 
the  same,  upon  request.  (In  reference  to  detection  of  adulterations,  see 
special  chapter.) 

Uses. — Oil  factory  by-products  are  used  chiefly  as  fattening  feeds 
(meat  and  fat  production)  and  for  milk  cows.  In  order,  however,  not 
to  sacrifice  quality  for  quantity,  in  the  resulting  products,  moderation 
in  feeding  these  materials  must  be  observed.  The  maximum  daily 
rations  for  milk  cows  should  not  exceed  3  pounds,  fattening  cattle  6 
pounds,  fattening  sheep  1^/2  pounds,  fattening  swine  2  pounds.  Work- 
ing oxen  may  have  as  much  as  4  pounds,  and  calves  3  months  of  age,  up 
to  1  pound.  At  the  finishing  stages  these  amounts  must  be  reduced. 
As  a  source  of  energy  for  working  animals  these  feeding  stuffs  are  less 
suitable.  They  should  be  fed  only  sparingly  to  horses.  They  should  be 
fed  in  the  form  of  crushed  cakes  or  ground  meal  to  horses,  sheep  and 
cattle.  It  is  best  to  feed  the  crushed  cakes  dry,  with  other  feeds.  When 
given  in  the  meal  form  they  are  usually  moistened  with  a  little  water 
immediately  before  feeding.     It  is  frequently  pointed  out,  however,  that 


114  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

these  meals  are  digested  better  if  fed  in  the  dry  state.  For  pigs  these 
materials  are  usually  scalded  or  boiled  before  feeding. 

The  most  important  by-products  of  oil  manufacture  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

Linseed  by-products. — From  the  seeds  of  common  flax,  Linum  usita- 
tissium.  This  has  the  advantage  over  other  oil  by-products  in  that  it 
swells  in  water  and  forms  a  larger  amount  of  gelatinous  material  which 
is  so  important  from  a  dietetic  point  of  view.  If  the  seeds  have  been 
steamed  this  property  is  destroyed. 

Linseed  cake,  which  is  put  on  the  market  in  the  form  of  round  slabs, 
has  a  dirty  greenish  brown  color  and  a  characteristic  linseed  odor.  It 
contains  from  30  to  33  per  cent  of  crude  protein,  of  which  27  per  cent 
is  digestible  albumen;  8  per  cent  fat,  and  a  starch  value  of  72  per  cent. 
The  linseed  meals  which  have  a  more  dark-green  color  contain  35  per 
cent  crude  protein,  of  which  31  per  cent  is  digestible  albumen;  3  to  4 
per  cent  of  fat,  and  a  starch  value  of  65  per  cent.  Both  forms  are  nearly 
free  from  starch.  If  the  iodin  test  produces  a  pronounced  reaction  it 
points  to  adulteration  with  starchy  matter   (weed  seeds,  etc.). 

Linseed  by-products  are  frequently  contaminated  with  all  kinds  of 
seeds  and  earth  particles,  and  owing  to  their  high  price,  are  frequently 
adulterated  with  screenings,  charlock,  dodder,  hempseed  or  with  other 
oil  cake  of  inferior  value  or  quality,  like  rape,  poppy,  castor  bean,  mus- 
tard, etc.,  or  hulls  of  peanuts,  cottonseed,  cocoanut  shells,  spoiled  feed 
meals  made  from  the  grains,  mineral  matter,  etc.  These  adulterations 
of  course  affect  their  chemical  composition,  their  dietetic  value  and  even 
their  wholesomeness.  In  a  case  reported  by  Dahl  linseed  cake  contained 
2  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lead  and  caused  the  death  or  required  the 
slaughter  of  10  cows  and  a  calf.  Mere  ocular  inspection  is  not  sufficient 
to  detect  these  adulterants.  For  particulars  see  the  chapter  on  the  de- 
tection of  adulterants. 

The  linseed  by-products  are  fed  chiefly  as  dietetic  substances  to  ani- 
mals that  are  in  a  weak  or  run-down  condition  and  to  young  stock  dur- 
ing the  weaning  period.  They  are  usually  too  expensive  to  be  used  as 
a  regular  part  of  the  rations  for  milk-producing,  fattening  or  working 
animals.  If  given  in  small  amounts,  1  pound  per  day,  they  constitute 
an  excellent  feed  for  milk  cows.  Quantities  in  excess  of  2  to  4  pounds 
daily  for  milk  or  fattening  cattle  should,  however,  be  avoided,  on  ac- 
count of  the  unfavorable  effect  of  large  rations  on  the  quality  of  the 
milk  and  meat  products.  Linseed  by-products  are  usually  fed  ground 
and  wet  or  made  into  gruels  or  broths. 

Rapeseed  and  turnip-seed  cake. — The  seeds  of  Brassica  napus  and  B. 
rapa.  Rape  seeds  have  a  dark  brown  color,  turnip  seeds  a  brown  color 
and  not  as  smooth  a  surface  as  the  former.  Rape  cake  has  a  strong, 
onionlike,  pleasant  odor,  and  a  greenish  yellow  color  which  becomes  more 
grayish  yellow  with  age.     That  which  has  been  subjected  to  the  action 


RAPE,  TURNIP  AND  PALM  SEED  CAKE  115 

of  higher  temperatures  has  a  darker  background  from  which  the  brown- 
ish black  broken  seed  coats  stand  out  in  rehef. 

Chemically,  rape  cake  consists  of  crude  protein  28  to  34  per  cent,  of 
which  23  per  cent  is  digestible  albumen;  from  8  to  10  per  cent  crude  fat, 
7.2  per  cent  mineral  matter,  and  11.5  per  cent  water.  The  starch  value 
is  61  per  cent.  This  by-product  contains  also  two  glucosids,  sinigrin 
and  sinalbin.  These  substances,  under  the  influence  of  moisture  and  the 
action  of  a  ferment,  myrosin,  produce  the  volatile  allyl  mustard  oil. 
Heating  to  100°  C,  as  well  as  the  conditions  existing  in  the  paunch  of 
ruminants,  destroys  the  power  of  myrosin  to  split  glucosids.  To  pre- 
vent the  formation  of  oil  of  mustard,  these  by-products  should  be  fed  in 
the  dry  state.  The  amount  of  oil  of  mustard  and  other  volatile  oils 
and  injurious  substances  formed  depends  on  climatic  conditions  un- 
der which  growth  took  place,  methods  of  extracting  the  oil,  duration  of 
storage,  and  the  action  of  fungi  and  bacteria.  A  number  of  phenomena 
in  this  connection  require  further  investigation  for  their  explanation. 
The  native  German  rape  and  turnip  seeds,  fed  in  moderate  amounts, 
have  no  toxic  effect.  Unfavorable  effects  are  observed  chiefly  from  the 
feeding  of  Indian  rape  and  mustard  seed,  rich  in  mustard  oil,  (0.56  per 
cent).  When  fed  in  amounts  not  exceeding  3  pounds  they  have  pro- 
duced gastro-enteritis,  nephritis,  abortion,  cerebritis  (sheep),  milk  of 
bad  odor,  serious  effects  on  calves,  and  death. 

Rape  and  turnip  seed  cake  is  frequently  contaminated  (or  adulterated) 
with  weed  seeds,  charlock,  field  mustard,  corn  cockle,  knotgrass,  notch 
weed  (Atriplex),  etc.,  other  oil  cake  of  inferior  grade  (mustard  seed 
cake,  recognized  by  the  strong  mustard  odor),  plant  refuse,  sand  and 
earth,  etc.,  etc. 

Milk  cows  should  receive  not  over  2  pounds  per  day,  to  prevent  bit- 
terness and  softness  of  the  butter.  Fattening  cattle  and  working  oxen 
take  4  pounds,  sheep  one-third  of  a  pound  and  swine  not  more  than 
one-half  of  a  pound.  Larger  quantities  produce  greasy  bacon  and  soft 
meat.  It  should  not  be  fed  to  young  stock  because  it  is  liable  to  cause 
diarrhea.  Rape  and  turnip  seed  by-products  have  a  bitter  taste  and  are 
not  liked  well  by  animals,  which  must  be  accustomed  to  them  gradually. 

Palmseed  cake. — From  the  oil  palm,  Elaeis  guineensis.  The  ground 
color  of  these  by-products  is  whitish  gray,  with  the  dark  broken  seed 
coats  showing  in  relief.  Their  taste  is  indifferent  and  their  odor  re- 
sembles that  of  tub  butter.  The  meal  is  not  readily  miscible  with  water. 
Under  the  influence  of  moisture  or  after  long  storage  they  are  apt  to 
become  rancid.  The  various  commercial  grades  are  designated  accord- 
ing to  the  countries  where  they  originate.  Adulteration  of  the  cakes 
seems  to  be  relatively  rare.  The  meals  are  of  course  more  subject  to 
adulteration. 

Palm-oil  cake  is  usually  sold  under  a  guaranty  of  its  contents  or 
composition — 16  to  18  per  cent  crude  protein  and  6  to  8  per  cent  of  fat. 

The  crude  fiber,  which  is  present  to  the  extent  of  from  25  to  35  per 


116 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


cent,  is  highly  digestible.  The  digestible  albumen  content  is  13  per  cent, 
starch  value  of  the  cake  70  per  cent,  and  of  the  extract  by-product  66 
per  cent.  These  by-products  are  wholesome,  but  animals  must  become 
accustomed  to  them  before  eating  them  readily.  They  are  fed  chiefly 
to  milk  cows,  4  pounds  daily  per  head.  They  increase  the  fat  content 
of  milk  and  give  a  firm  consistency,  a  pleasing  yellowish-white  color  and 
an  agreeable  taste  to  the  butter.  On  account  of  their  high  price  they  are 
usually  not  fed  to  fattening  cattle. 


Fig.  50.     Peanut.     A,  fruit,  developed  under  ground.      (Taubert.) 


Peanut  hy-products. — Origin :  Peanut,  Arachis  hypogcea,  an  annual, 
tropical,  herbaceous  Papilionacese.  Peanuts  (1.5  to  3.5  by  1  to  1.5  cm.) 
have  a  brownish  white  coriaceous,  veined,  almost  indigestible,  hull  and 
two  seed  kernels  about  the  size  of  a  hazlenut  and  inclosed  in  a  brownish 
red,  brittle  seed  coat.  The  latter  is  frequently  removed  and  ground 
and  in  this  form  is  known  in  commerce  as  bran.  It  contains  over  40 
per  cent  of  crude  fiber  and  is  therefore  a  feeding  stuff  of  very  doubtful 
value. 

Shelled  peanuts  spoil  readily,  especially  during  ocean  transportation. 
The  peanut  by-products  made  in  Europe  are  therefore  more  valuable  than 
those  that  have  been  transported  over  long  sea  routes  and  have  become 
rancid  or  moldy  en  route. 


PEANUT  BY-PRODUCTS  117 

High-grade  by-products  should  have  a  light  whitish-gray  ground  color 
sprinkled  with  the  reddish  particles  of  broken  seed  coats.  Spoiled  ma- 
terial has  a  yellowish  or  brownish  color  and  a  sharp,  moldy,  rancid  taste 
and  smell,  while  the  odor  of  the  fresh  material  resembles  that  of -beans. 

The  better  grades  of  peanut  by-products^°  contain  48  per  cent  of 
crude  protein  (of  which  39  to  45  per  cent  is  digestible  albumen),  8  per 
cent  crude  fat,  5  per  cent  crude  fiber  and  1  per  cent  sand  in  the  so-called 
German  product,  while  the  Marseilles  peanut  cake  and  meal  usually 
contain  from  2  to  3  per  cent  of  sand.  The  starch  value  varies  between 
76  and  77.5  per  cent. 

High-grade  peanut  cake  is  wholesome  and  has  a  high  digestive  coef- 
ficient. Decomposed  or  rancid  material,  however,  has  frequently  been 
observed  to  have  caused  violent  poisoning  with  symptoms  of  digestive 
disorders  and  paralysis.  In  the  case  of  peanut  by-products,  special 
stress  should  be  put  on  the  importance  of  fresh,  uncontaminated  material. 

Adulterations  usually  consist  of  peanut  hulls  and  seed  coats  (so- 
called  peanut  hull  meal,  a  greenish  powder,  hardly  of  equal  value  to 
straw),  poppy  seeds,  niger  seeds,  castor  beans,  mustard,  rapeseed  by- 
products, rice  hulls,  various  kinds  of  seed  skins,  grain  screenings,  etc. 

Peanut  meal  or  cake  is  fed  in  daily  quantities  not  exceeding  4  pounds 
to  milk  cows  and  fattening  cattle,  3  pounds  for  horses  (as  substitute  for 
6  to  8  pounds  of  oats),  and  not  to  exceed  1  to  1.5  pounds  for  sheep  and 
fattening  swine.  Smaller  quantities  may  be  fed  as  supplementary  feeds 
to  young  stock. 

Cotton  seed  by-products.— Origin :  Several  species  of  cotton,  belong- 
ing to  the  Malvaceae,  Gossypiiun  arboreum,  G.  barbadense,  G.  herbaceum, 
G.   hirsutum,   G.   peruvianum,    G.    religiosum.    (Fig.    51.) 

Cottonseed  is  surrounded  by  a  feltwork  of  cotton  fiber  which  is  in- 
timately united  with  the  seed  coat.  After  removal  of  the  cotton,  which 
consists  of  filaments  varying  in  length  from  1  to  4  cm.  and  shorter  ones 
varying  in  length  from  0.5  to  3  cm.,  there  remains  the  naked  oval  seed, 
about  the  size  of  a  pea,  consisting  of  a  brittle,  blackish  brown  seed  coat 
and  a  loosely  inclosed  oily  seed  kernel.  The  nutritive  value  of  cotton- 
seed hulls  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  wheat  chaff.  American  cotton- 
seed meal  containing  the  hulls  is  usually  coarse  in  character  and  un- 
evenly mixed  with  cotton  fiber.  In  Germany  these  fibers  are  removed 
and  the  meal  is  reground  and  put  on  the  market  as  "German  double- 
screened  and  defibrinated  meal." 

Cottonseed  oil  is  derived  from  the  whole  or  the  decorticated  cotton 
seeds,  either  by  means  of  hydraulic  pressure  or  extracting  (dissolving) 
fluids.     The  cake  from  the  whole  seeds  has  a  greenish  yellow  ground 


iSBut  little  peanut  meal  is  sold  in  the  United  States  and  that  which  is  sold  is  chiefly  froin 
unhulled  nuts,  containing  about  28  per  cent  crude  protein  and  23  per  cent  fiber.  (Henry  and 
Morrison,   Feeds  and  Feeding — 1916.) — Translator. 


118 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


color,  in  which  the  broken  seed  coats  are  visible.  The  cake  made  from 
decorticated  seed  has  a  uniform  light  yellow  color,  nut-like  taste  and 
agreeable  odor.  A  darker  shade  of  color  frequently  indicates  old,  over- 
heated or  poorly  stored  material. 


Fig.  51.  Cotton  plant.  1,  Branch  with  flowers  and  ripe  fruit  (2);  J,  cross  section  of  fruit 
pod  or  boll;  4,  longitudinal  section  of  same;  5,  boll  with  calyx;  6,  open  ripe  fruit  pod,  with  three 
woolly  seeds;  7,  empty  capsule;  8,  seed  surrounded  with  cotton  fibers;  9,  seed  with  cotton  fibers 
removed;  10,  longitudinal   section  of  seed;   11,  cross  section  of  seed. 


Whole  cottonseed  meal  (American)  contains  25  per  cent  crude  pro- 
tein, of  which  17  per  cent  consists  of  digestible  albumen;  6  to  8  per  cent 
fat  (no  starch — important  in  detecting  adulterations),  a  starch  value  of 
39  per  cent,  and  7  per  cent  of  mineral  matter.  The  by-products  of  de- 
corticated seed  are  usually  accompanied  by  a  guaranty  of  46  per  cent  of 
crude  protein  and  10  per  cent  of  fat.  The  latter  is  characterized  by  its 
high  digestive  coefficient  (98  per  cent)  and  gives  excellent  results  when 
fed  to  fattening  animals  and  milk  cows.  The  digestible  albumen  con- 
tent is  39  per  cent  and  the  starch  value  73  per  cent. 

The  feeding  of  cottonseed  by-products  has  frequently  been  followed 
by  serious  poisoning  in  calves,  young  stock,  and  also  in  mature  animals, 


COTTONSEED  BY-PRODUCTS 


119 


with  symptoms  of  diarrhea,  bloody  urine,  gastroenteric  catarrh,  often 
of  a  hemorrhagic  nature,  nephritis,  abortion,  etc.  Postmortem  examina- 
tions usually  reveal  hemorrhages  in  the  mesentery,  intestines  and  kid- 
neys, ascites,  cloudy  swelling  of  the  heart,  liver  and  kidneys  and  cardiac 
paralysis. 

The  harmful  principle  in  cottonseed  has  not  been  definitely  determined 


Fig.    52.      Cocoanut   palm. 


Fig.  53.  Cocoa  nut.  a,  Outer  fruit  covering; 
b,  fibrous  envelope;  c,  inner  fruit  shell;  d.  seed 
shell;  e,  endosperm  of  the  seed  proper;  f,  cavity, 
filled  with  "milk"   when   fresh. 


but  in  all  probability  this  is  of  the  nature  of  bacterial  products  (p.  147). 
Prolonged  heating  destroys  the  toxic  substance. 

Cornevin  succeeded  in  extracting  the  toxic  principle  with  water  and 
killing  dogs  with  subcutaneous  injections.  Symptoms,  diarrhea  and  loss 
of  consciousness.  Withers  and  Carruth  extracted  gossypol  with  ether 
after  the  seeds  had  been  decorticated  and  the  fat  removed  with  gasoline. 
Gossypol  killed  guinea-pigs  when  injected  intraperitoneally.  Since  young 
stock  and  pigs  are  more  sensitive  to  the  effects  of  the  toxic  principle 
in  cottonseed,  the  latter  is  usually  withheld  from  them.  Furthermore, 
these  products  are  unsuited  for  pregnant  animals  and  those  that  are 
suckling  their  young. 


120  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

Formerly,  aspiration  of  the  too  abundantly  present  fibers  caused  dis- 
ease of  the  lungs  and  bronchi,  and  pieces  of  wire  from  the  cotton  gins 
have  caused  internal  injuries.  To  avoid  accidents  of  this  nature,  cot- 
tonseed by-products,  unless  they  are  dependable  wares,  should  be  care- 
fully screened  and,  if  necessary,  moistened  before  feeding. 

The  daily  ration  of  cottonseed  by-products  for  milk  cows  and  horses 
should  not  exceed  2  pounds,  for  working  oxen,  ,4  pounds,  fattening  cat- 
tle up  to  5  pounds,  and  sheep  two-thirds  of  a  pounds.     If  fed  in  the 


Fig.    54.      Sesame.      1,    Closed    fruit   capsule;    2,   open    fruit   capsule;   3,   cross   section    of   fruit 
capsule. 

quantities  indicated  they  do  not  affect  the  milk  or  butter  unfavorably. 
Larger  quantities,  however,  produce  a  dry,  hard  and  colorless  butter, 
Cocoanut  by-products. — Origin :  Cocoanut  palm,  Cocos  nucifera,  Fig. 
52.  The  cocoanut  is  enclosed  by  an  outer  fruit  covering  (Fig.  53,  a), 
within  which  are  the  fibrous  envelope,  b,  which  is  used  as  material  for 
making  mats,  the  inner  fruit  shell,  c,  from  which  are  manufactured 
buttons,  trinkets,  etc.  and  the  seed  (copra,  e),  which  furnishes  the  cocoa- 
nut  oil.    The  by-products  serve  as  feeding  stuffs. 


SESAME,  SUNFLOWER  AND  POPPYSEED  CAKE  121 

The  interior  of  the  seed,  when  fresh,  is  filled  with  "milk,"  which  is 
used  as  an  article  of  diet  for  human  beings. 

Cocoanut  by-products  have  a  light  brown  to  reddish  color  and  a  taste 
and  odor  resembling  those  of  the  hazlenut.  After  prolonged  storage 
they  easily  become  rancid  and  brittle  or  crumbly  and  then  have  a  scratchy 
unpleasant  taste. 

They  contain  about  18  to  24  per  cent  of  crude  protein.  The  cake 
contains  16.3  per  cent  of  digestible  albumen  and  10  to  12  per  cent  of 
fat  with  a  high  melting  point.  The  starch  value  of  the  cake  is  76.5 
per  cent. 

They  are  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  palmseed  by-products  al- 
ready discussed.  Spoiled  cocoanut  cake,  like  all  decomposed  oil  by- 
products, will  cause  poisoning.  Cocoanut  by-products  are  used  mainly 
as  feed  for  milk  cows,  about  4  pounds  per  head  per  day. 

Sesame  by-products. — Origin :  Sesamum  indicum,  resembling  fox  glove 
in  appearance  (Fig.  54). 

Fresh  cakes  have  a  light  yellowish  or  light  green  color  and  pleasant 
taste  and  are  odorless.  They  become  rancid  and  moldy  very  easily  and 
should  therefore  be  stored  with  great  care.  They  are  characterized  by 
their  high  content  of  phosphoric  acid.  The  cake  is  usually  guaranteed 
to  contain  42  per  cent  of  crude  protein  and  8  per  cent  of  fat.  The 
digestible  albumen  content  is  about  35.5  per  cent  and  the  starch  value 
79  per  cent. 

Animals  like  the  cakes,  and  as  a  rule  they  are  wholesome  and  agree 
well  with  them.  Fed  in  large  quantity  they  impart  a  soft  character  to 
the  butter.  Daily  rations  are  the  same  as  those  given  for  peanut  by- 
products. According  to  Hansson  and  others,  they  increase  the  quantity 
of  the  milk  yielded  but  reduce  the  percentage  of  fat. 

Poisoning  has  also  been  repeatedly  observed  following  feeding  on 
sesame  cake.  Thus,  Deyerling  reported  an  instance  in  which  111  head 
of  cattle  showed  symptoms  of  poisoning  fifteen  minutes  after  feeding 
on  sesame  cake.  The  symptoms  were  cough,  depression,  trembling, 
salivation,  tympanitis  and  fever.  Recovery  set  in  one  and  a  half  hours 
later. 

Sunflower  seed  cake. — Origin :  Sunflower,  Helianthus  annuus.  This 
usually  contains  a  large  percentage  of  seed  hulls  (10  to  15  per  cent)  and 
foreign  admixtures,  weed  seeds,  earth  particles,  etc.  It  is  usually  guar- 
anteed to  contain  38  per  cent  of  crude  protein  and  12  per  cent  of  fat  with 
a  rather  low  melting  point.  The  digestibility  of  this  material  is  about 
the  same  as  that  of  other  oil  seed  by-products  made  from  the  whole 
seed.    Sunflower  seed  cake  is  characterized  by  its  good  keeping  qualities. 

Poppy  seed  by-products. — Origin :  Poppy.  Papaver  soinniferum.  This 
product  is  whitish  gray,  yellowish  red,  dark  brown,  dark  blue  or  black 
in  color  and  has  poor  keeping  qualities.  It  contains  35  per  cent  of  crude 
protein,  of  which  26.5  per  cent  is  digestible  albumen,  and  12  per  cent 
crude  fat.     The  starch  value  is  66  per  cent.     Narcotic  principles  occur 


122  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

in  ripe  seed  to  the  extent  of  mere  traces  at  the  most,  but  are  present  in 
much  larger  quantities  in  unripe  milky  seed  and  seed  capsules  and  may- 
gain  entrance  into  the  by-products  through  the  medium  of  these.  For 
these  reasons  the  feeding  of  poppy  seed  by-products  is  usually  avoided 
in  the  case  of  horses,  young  stock,  pregnant  cows  or  cows  suckling  their 
young,  and  confined  to  fattening  cattle,  sheep  and  swine.  Milk  cows 
take  2  pounds,  but  only  under  the  condition  that  the  milk  product  is  not 
sold  as  food  for  children  or  infants.  The  use  of  poppy  seed  by-products 
is  frequently  condemned  for  its  effects  on  the  milk  (fat,  taste,  color,  etc.). 

Hempseed  cake. — Origin :  By-product  of  the  seed  of  hemp,  Cannabis 
sativa.  It  contains  on  the  average  30  per  cent  of  crude  protein,  of  which 
22.5  per  cent  is  digestible  albumen,  and  10  per  cent  of  fat.  Its  starch 
value  is  45  per  cent.  It  is  frequently  contaminated  with  stems,  leaves 
and  particles  of  earth.  Feeding  this  material  has  been  followed  by 
narcotic  efifects,  congestion  of  the  brain,  diarrhea  and  abortion.  The 
feeding  of  very  moldy  cake  has  been  known  to  cause  derangements  of 
the  central  nervous  system  (difficulties  of  mastication  and  deglutition, 
paralysis  of  the  tongue,  paraplegia  and  even  death).  Postmortem  find- 
ings, negative.  Hemp  cake  is  much  used  in  the  eastern  provinces  of 
Prussia  as  horse  and  cattle  feed,  especially  for  adult  male  animals. 
Work  horses  receive  up  to  3  pounds,  fattening  cattle  3  to  5  pounds, 
fattening  sheep  1  pound,  milk  cows  1  pound.  When  it  is  fed  in  large 
quantities  the  quality  of  the  butter  suffers. 

Soy-bean  cake.  Origin:  Soy-bean,  Soja  hispida.  It  is  characterized 
by  its  exceptionally  rich  portein  content  (45  per  cent  crude  protein,  of 
which  38  per  cent  is  digestible  albumen)  and  high  digestive  coefificient. 
Milk  cows  may  be  given  3  pounds,  fattening  cattle  and  working  oxen  4 
pounds,  horses  3  pounds,  fattening  sheep  and  stock  hogs  1  pound,  and 
smaller  quantities  for  young  stock. 

Beechnut  cake. — Origin:  Beech,  Fagus  sylvatica.  Like  beechnuts,  this 
product  is  very  liable  to  cause  poisoning  in  horses  (see  page  97).  For 
this  reason  it  is  avoided  as  a  feed  for  horses. 

Madia  cake. — Origin:  Madia  sativa,  an  American  Compositae.  It  is 
liable  to  contain  narcotic  substances  and  is  therefore  used  only  as  feed 
for  fattening  cattle,  in  moderation. 

Camelina  cake. — Origin :  Camelina  sativa,  false  flax,  a  member  of  the 
Cruciferre.  This  product  is  frequently  contaminated  with  rape  and  mus- 
tard seed.  It  is  not  very  palatable  and  has  an  onion-like  or  mustard- 
like odor,  which  afifects  the  taste  of  the  milk  and  meat  of  animals  feed- 
ing upon  it.     Camelina  cake  is  also  reputed  to  cause  abortion. 

Candle-nut  cake. — ^Origin:  Aleurites  triloba,  a  euphorbiaceous  shrub, 
native  of  some  of  the  Pacific  Islands.  The  oil  has  many  uses.  It  is 
said  also  to  have  a  laxative  action. 

Castor  oil  bean  cake. — Origin :  Ricinus  communis,  castor  oil  bean  plant, 
Euphorbiacese.     The  toxic  principle   in  this   cake   is  destroyed   by  sub- 


ALMONDSEED,  CAKE,  ETC.  123 

jecting  the  cakes  to  a  high  temperature.  If  this  precaution  is  not  taken, 
serious  poisoning  results.  Symptoms,  gastrointestinal  inflammation,  vio- 
lent diarrhea,  paralysis,  swelling  and  dark  red  discoloration  of  the  con- 
junctiva, accelerated  and  weak  pulse,  nephritis,  cloudy  swelling  of  the 
liver,  due  to  the  toxic  principle,  ricin.  According  to  Bierbaum,  0.4  grams 
of  castor  oil  beans,  and  according  to  Miessner  0.1  gram  of  castor  oil 
beans  in  a  single  dose,  or  consecutive  daily  doses  of  0.05  grams  per  1 
kilogram  (2  pounds)  live  weight,  for  several  days,  are  fatal  to  horses. 
Bierbaum  fed  204.5  grams  of  castor  oil  beans  in  the  course  of  26  days, 
and  240  grams  in  the  course  of  45  days,  to  horses.  In  the  latter  in- 
stance there  followed  considerable  loss  of  weight  but  no  other  observable 
symptoms.  Rabbits  die  after  consuming  0.75  to  1.0  gram  of  castor  oil 
bean  seed  per  kilogram  live  weight.  On  the  other  hand,  Miessner  found 
that  a  single  dose  of  from  30  to  50  grams  will  kill  a  horse.  Sometimes 
other  oil-cake  products  are  adulterated  with  castor  oil  seed  cake  that 
has  not  been  deprived  of  its  toxic  principle.  For  the  detection  of  castor 
oil  bean  by-products,  see  page  135. 

Almond-seed  cake  is  a  very  palatable  and  wholesome  feedingstufif  foi 
milk  cows. 

Mustard  seed  cake. — Origin :  Species  of  mustard,  Sinapis  nigra,  S.  alba 
and  5".  arvensis.     Not  suitable  as  a  feedingstufif  for  domestic  animals. 

Cocoa  oil  cakes  are  used  as  feed  for  milk  cows  and  swine,  rarely  for 
horses.  According  to  Hansen,  they  contain  l}^  per  cent  theobromin. 
They  are  readily  eaten  and  digested  when  given  in  small  amounts.  In 
quantities  as  high  as  2  pounds  they  may  produce  poisoning  in  swine, 
cattle  and  poultry.  Symptoms,  exhaustion,  swaying  of  the  hind  parts, 
general  spasms,  death   from  cardiac  paralysis. 

They  contain,  further,  14  per  cent  of  crude  protein,  which  is  entirely 
indigestible.  Cocoa  cakes  decrease  the  milk  secretion  to  the  extent  of  1 
quart  per  day  and  decrease  the  percentage  of  fat  }i  per  cent. 

Niger  cake. — ^Origin:  Ramtil,  Guisotia  abyssinica  is  wholesome,  but 
contains  a  large  per  cent  of  woody  cellulose  and  is  therefore  less  digesti- 
ble and  of  less  value  than  other  oil  cakes.  Milk  cows  and  fattening 
sheep  may  take  10  pounds  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight. 

Pumpkin-seed  cake. — Origin :  Pumpkin  seed,  Cucurbita  pepo.  Made 
from  hulled  seeds.     Wholesome  and  nutritious. 

Kapok  and  olive  cake. — Their  value,  etc.,  has  not  yet  been  demon- 
strated. 

The  by-products  of  caraway,  fennel,  anise  and  coriander  seed,  which 
occur  in  the  distillation  of  their  volatile  oils,  contain  in  entirety  the  orig- 
inal fats  and  oils  and  are  suitable  as  feed  for  fattening  cattle  and  milk 
cows. 

Mahwa  nut  oil  cake. — Origin :  Bassia  longifolia  and  B.  latifolia,  na- 
tives of  Borneo,  India,  Senegal,  etc.  The  seeds  produce  a  fixed  oil. 
Ramm  and  Moeller  recommend  the  "cake"  for  milk  cows.  It  contains 
little  protein  but  is  rich  in  fat  and  carbohydrates. 


124  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

X.    Feeding  Stuffs  of  Animal  Origin 

The  principal  feeding  stuffs  of  animal  origin  are : 

1.  Milk  and  the  by-products  of  creameries,  butter-making  and  cheese- 
making  (skim  milk,  buttermilk,  whey). 

2.  Preparations  from  meat,  blood,  bones,  or  the  entire  carcasses  of 
animals. 

1.   Milk  and  Its  By-Products 

Milk. — The  nutrients  in  milk  (albumen  3.5  per  cent,  fat  3.5  per  cent, 
sugar  4.5  per  cent  and  salts  0.75  per  cent)  are  almost  completely  digested 
by  suckling  animals.     Digestive  coefficient,  98  per  cent. 

Whole  milk  is  used  as  food  for  newborn  animals  or  to  supplement 
the  milk  supply  of  the  mother  when  necessary.  It  should  be  fed  at  the 
temperature  of  the  mother's  blood.  Sour  or  otherwise  spoiled  milk  us- 
ually does  not  agree  with  young  animals.  Older  calves,  or  swine,  how- 
ever, may  do  well  on  it. 

Hygienic  requirements  are  that  the  milk  originate  from  healthy  ani- 
mals, be  produced  under  sanitary  conditions  and  properly  kept. 

Skim  milk  differs  from  whole  milk  chiefly  in  the  practical  absence  of 
fat  (0.1  per  cent  or  more)  which  reduces  its  value  50  per  cent.  The 
addition  of  sugar,  starch  or  fat  (linseed  meal,  etc.)  or  other  carbohy- 
drates tends  to  replace  this  loss. 

Skim  milk  is  used  as  a  food  chiefly  for  young  stock  after  six  weeks 
of  age.  It  should  be  given  as  fresh  as  possible  and  at  a  temperature  of 
freshly  drawn  milk.  It  is  good  for  fattening  calves,  lambs  and  swine. 
It  is  rarely  used  for  colts  or  given  to  milk  cows  (5  to  8  quarts  for  the 
latter).  While  animals,  under  certain  conditions,  thrive  upon  sour  milk, 
it  is  not  advisable  to  let  milk  sour  purposely  before  feeding  it,  since  the 
process  of  sour  fermentation  is  attended  with  breaking  down  of  the  sugar 
and  consequent  loss  of  food  value. 

To  prevent  transmission  of  infectious  diseases,  such  as  tuberculosis, 
foot-and-mouth  disease,  etc.,  skim  milk  should  be  boiled  or  pasteurized 
before  feeding.  The  pasteurization  of  creamery  skim  milk  should  be  re- 
quired by  law.  Skim  milk  from  creameries  and  skimming  stations  should 
always  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  since  it  is  a  fruitful  source  of  ali- 
mentary tuberculosis  of  swine.  The  enforcement  of  laws  requiring  the 
pasteurization  of  skim  milk  before  it  is  offered  for  sale  has  resulted  in 
the  practical  extermination  of  feeding  tuberculosis  of  swine  in  Denmark. 
A  similar  law  is  in  force  throughout  Germany.  Bang  has  pronounced 
the  Danish  regulation,  as  the  best  veterinary  sanitary  police  measure  that 
has  been  adopted  in  Denmark  in  the  last  ten  years.  The  slimy  residue 
obtained  from  cream  separators  frequently  contains  the  germs  of  disease, 
tubercle  bacilli,  and  should  therefore  not  be  used  for  feeding  but  rather 
destroyed  by  burning  or  burial.  (This  is  prescribed  by  law  for  German 
creameries.) 

Skim  milk  as  well  as  whole  milk  should  come  from  healthy  animals, 
be  produced  under  sanitary  conditions,  and  be  properly  kept  or  preserved. 


MEAT,  BLOOD,  BONES,  ETC.  125 

Buttermilk  either  has  the  character  of  sweet  skim  milk  containing 
about  0.5  per  cent  of  fat,  and  in  that  case  may  be  used  for  Hke  purposes, 
or  it  is  more  or  less  sour.  When  of  the  latter  character  it  is  used,  mixed 
with  coarsely  ground  grain  or  potatoes,  for  fattening  swine. 

It  is  said  that  calves  and  pigs  do  not  thrive  on  a  certain  sour  buttermilk 
product  which  has  recently  been  imported  from  Holland  on  a  rather  large 
scale  as  food  for  infants.  It  causes  diarrhea  in  calves  and  pigs  and 
should  be  boiled  before  feeding  and  fed  sparingly  if  at  all. 

Whey. — There  are  sweet  and  sour  wheys.  The  former  are  obtained 
by  treating  sweet  milk  with  rennet  to  separate  the  casein,  which  also  in- 
cludes most  of  the  fat.  The  latter  are  obtained  from  the  separation  of 
the  casein  from  sour  milk.  Whey  contains  from  4.5  to  7.5  per  cent  of 
dry  matter,  1  per  cent  albumen,  0.2  to  1.3  per  cent  of  fat.  The  sweet 
wheys  contain,  in  addition,  about  4.5  per  cent  of  milk  sugar,  while  the 
sour  wheys  contain  only  a  fraction  of  this  amount.  Most  of  the  sugar 
in  sour  whey  has  been  lost  by  conversion  into  lactic  acid  by  bacterial 
action.  Wheys  have  about  one-half  the  feeding  value  of  skim  milk  or 
one-quarter  that  of  whole  milk.  The  starch  value  of  sweet  whey  is  6.4 
per  cent,  while  that  of  sour  whey  is  only  5  per  cent. 

Wheys  are  fed  chiefly  to  swine,  boiled  and  mixed  with  other  feeding 
material ;  more  rarely  to  fattening  calves  or  milk  cows.  Sour  wheys  have 
a  laxative  effect  and  are  used  dietetically  in  constipation,  like  sour  milk 
and  buttermilk. 

2.    Preparations  from  Meat,  Blood,  Bones,  Etc. 

Meat  meal  or  tankage  consists  practically  of  leached  meat  scraps,  ob- 
tained in  the  manufacture  of  meat  extracts.  After  the  scraps  have  been 
boiled  or  heated  under  steam  pressure,  in  water,  the  latter,  with  the  sol- 
uble portions  of  the  meat,  is  drawn  off  and  manufactured  into  "extract." 
The  residue  is  dried  and  ground  into  a  fine  meal  (American  meat  meal 
or  tankage).^®  Another  product  marketed  under  the  same  name  is  ob- 
tained by  subjecting  to  the  same  process  the  cadavers  of  animals  that 
died  from  the  effects  of  disease  or  that  were  slaughtered  for  consump- 
tion but  afterwards  condemned  for  food  purposes.  This  is  marketed 
under  the  name  of  "German  cadaver  meal."^^ 

American  meat  meal  contains  about  10  to  12  per  cent  of  water,  70  to 
75  per  cent  of  crude  protein  (64  per  cent  digestible  albumen),  10  per 
cent  of  fat  and  3  to  4.5  per  cent  of  mineral  matter  or  ash.  The  digestive 
coefficient  is  about  90  per  cent.  It  is  generally  very  wholesome.  It  is 
used  as  feed  for  growing  pigs  during  the  first  few  months  in  amounts 
of  50  grams  (1^  ounces)  per  head  per  day.  As  the  pigs  get  older  they 
may  take  from  ^^  to  1  pound  and  even  2  pounds  per  day  per  head.    Ex- 

iSThe  products  referred  to  as  "American  meat  meal"  and  "German  cadaver  meal"  are  also 
obtained  in  the  American  market,  but  usually  all  under  the  general  name  of  "tankage.  '  Piir- 
chasers  and  feeders  should  be  guided  bv  the  guaranteed  chemical  analysis  as  well  as  by  the 
reputation  and  character  (whether  meat  packer  or  fertilizer  manufacturer)  of  the  lirin  putting 
the  product  on  the  market. — Translator. 


126  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

cessive  amounts  cause  diarrhea  in  young  pigs.  It  is  less  frequently  used 
as  calf  feed  (0.6  kg.,  1^  lbs.).  Cattle  may  have  2  pounds  per  day  and 
horses  one-half  pounds.  The  latter  do  not  eat  it  as  well  as  other  ani- 
mals. This  dislike  may  be  overcome,  however,  by  beginning  with  very 
small  quantities  and  mixing  the  feed  containing  it  with  other  substances 
to  mask  the  taste.  Dammann  recommends  meat  meal  as  a  tonic  food  for 
anemic  sheep.  American  meat  meal  is  deficient  in  lime  and  phosphates. 
For  young  animals  this  deficiency  should  be  corrected  by  the  addition  of 
the  missing  salts. 

Meat  meals  are  also  valuable  as  poultry  feed. 

German  cadaver  meal  is  richer  in  mineral  matter  or  salts  than  Ameri- 
can meat  meal,  because  it  contains  the  bones  and  the  intestinal  contents 
of  the  cadavers.  It  also  contains  considerable  amounts  of  crude  fiber 
and  nitrogen-free  extract.  According  to  analyses  made  by  the  author,  it 
contains,  on  the  average,  from  8  to  13  per  cent  of  water,  50  to  60  per  cent 
of  crude  protein  (20  per  cent  of  this  being  digestible  albumen),  13  to  15 
per  cent  of  fat,  0.1  to  0.5  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract,  1  to  1.5  per  cent 
crude  fiber,  and  18  to  19  per  cent  of  mineral  matter  or  ash  (5  to  12  per 
cent  of  this  is  phosphate  of  Hme).    The  starch  value  is  70  per  cent. 

Exposure  for  several  hours  to  a  temperature  of  270°  F.  will  destroy, 
with  certainty,  all  disease  germs  in  cadavers.  Experiments  and  investiga- 
tions of  Hagemann,  Ellenberger  and  Klimmer,  Glage,  Haefke,  as  well 
as  practical  experience,  have  demonstrated  that  meat  meal,  even  when 
made  from  cadavers  already  in  advanced  stage  of  decomposition,  agrees 
with  animals.  Its  practical  uses  are  the  same  as  those  of  American 
meat  meal,  but  its  digestibility  is  lower.  (The  same  is  true  of  the  cor- 
responding American  product. — Translator.) 

In  addition  to  these  valuable  meat  meals,  other  meals,  of  inferior  value, 
the  product  of  cannery  refuse,  consisting  mainly  of  tendons,  cartilage, 
fasciae,  rancid  fat,  etc.,  are  put  on  the  market. 

The  waste  material  of  glove  factories  (ground  leather)  is  sometimes 
found  on  the  market  under  the  misleading  name  of  "meat  meal."  This 
contains  18  per  cent  of  indigestible  protein,  5  per  cent  of  fat,  and  55  per 
cent  of  leather-like  substances.  It  contains  little  digestible  matter  and  is 
worthless  as  a  feeding  stufif. 

Tropon  wastes,  according  to  Hagemann  and  Ramm,  contain  88.4  per 
cent  of  dry  matter,  consisting  of  3.1  per  cent  ash,  18.3  per  cent  crude  fiber, 
3.3  per  cent  crude  protein  (3.0  per  cent  digestible  albumen),  8.85  per  cent 
fat  and  37.75  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract.  They  are  valuable  as  a 
fattening  feed  for  swine.  Their  feeding  value  per  100  pounds,  with  bar- 
ley feed  meal  and  bran  at  $5.55  per  100  pounds,  is  $11.72. 

Fish  meals  are  either  by-products  of  the  fish  oil  industry  or  they  are 
made  from  dead  or  spoiled  fish.  They  are  produced  either  by  steaming 
or  cooking  the  raw  material  and  subsequent  drying  in  vacuum  tanks  or 
by  exposure  to  the  air.  Sometimes  the  fats  are  removed  from  the  dried 
meal  with  the  aid  of  benzin  or  bisulphid  of  carbon.     The  best  material 


BLOOD  MEAL  127 

is  made  from  haddock  and  from  herrings  (Clupea,  etc.).  Fish  meal  made 
from  cod  is  less  valuable,  but  rich  in  phosphate  of  lime.  Fish  meals  con- 
tain from  45  to  58  per  cent  of  crude  protein  (40  to  44  per  cent  digest- 
ible albumen)  and  from  2  to  20  per  cent  of  fat  with  large  amounts  (30 
per  cent)  of  phosphate  of  lime  which  is  furnished  by  the  bones.  The 
starch  value  of  these  products,  when  they  are  low  in  fat,  is  about  44  per 
cent;  when  rich  in  fat,  about  64  per  cent.  The  digestive  coefficient  is 
about  90  per  cent.  They  are  used  as  feeding  stuffs  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  meat  meals  and  feed  lime.  The  more  fatty  fish  meals  are  liable 
to  impart  a  fishy  taste  to  the  meat  and  bacon  and  possibly  also  to  the  milk. 
This  is  not  the  case  with  the  meals  of  low  fat  content.  Anthrax  spores 
and  pseudo-anthrax  bacilli  have  repeatedly  been  found  in  fish  meals  as 
a  result  of  contamination  with  anthrax  cadavers,  etc.  Fish  do  not  con- 
tract anthrax. 

Blood  meal,  obtained  by  drying  and  grinding  the  blood  of  slaughtered 
animals,  contains  about  85  per  cent  of  crude  protein  (72  per  cent  digest- 
ible albumen)  and  2.5  per  cent  of  fat.  When  properly  made,  especially 
when  not  subjected  to  too  high  temperature  when  drying,  it  is  highly  di- 
gestible (digestive  coefficient  as  high  as  90  per  cent),  agrees  well  with 
animals,  and  is  a  good  dietetic  feed  in  case  of  anemia.  The  starch  value 
is  about  72  per  cent.  It  is  used  as  a  feed  for  weakly  colts,  anemic  sheep, 
fattening  swine  (Zoubek,  Zaitscheck,  etc.),  1  to  2  pounds  per  1,000 
pounds  live  weight.  It  is  also  used  in  the  preparation  of  cakes  or  bis- 
cuits and  to  supplement  molasses  feed  mixtures  (p.  86  and  109). 

Paunch  mixed  feed  is  made  from  the  dried  and  aerated  paunch  con- 
tents of  slaughtered  animals,  40  per  cent,  molasses  30  per  cent,  cadaver 
meal  17  per  cent  (low-grade  tankage),  and  13  per  cent  of  potato  pulp. 
It  is  marketed  under  the  name  of  Paunch  mixed  feed.  Its  composition 
is,  from  its  nature,  variable.  Its  nutritive  value  is  determined  mainly 
by  the  tankage,  molasses  and  potato  pulp  that  have  been  added  to  it. 
The  feeding  value  of  the  paunch  contents  of  slaughtered  animals  is  us- 
ually equal  to  that  of  straw.  Their  use  is  therefore  not  justified  even  on 
an  economic  basis. 

According  to  Hohncamp,  Nolte  and  Blanck,  paunch  mixed  feed  con- 
tains : 


Crude  protein,                 23.0%, 

of  which 

14.8%  is  digestible. 

Crude  fat,                          2.2%, 

of  which 

0.9%  is  digestible. 

Nitrogen-free    extract,    45.8%, 

of  which 

13.9%  is  digestible. 

Crude  fiber,                      15.0%, 

of  which 

5.7%  is  digestible. 

Cattle  seem  to  like  this  feed  fairly  well. 

Glue  concentrate  consists  of  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue  with 
the  adhering  particles  of  flesh,  tendons,  etc.,  that  have  been  scraped  from 
the  hides  of  slaughtered  animals,  dried  and  ground.  Its  composition  var- 
ies. A  sample  which  was  supposed  to  contain  some  bone  meal  in  addition, 
analyzed  by  Hanssen,  contained  7.1  per  cent  of  water,  56.1  per  cent  crude 


128  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

protein,  4.0  per  cent  crude  fat  and  36.6  per  cent  mineral  matter  or  ash. 
It  is  eaten  readily  by,  and  agrees  well  with,  swine  and  cattle. 

Bone  feed  meal,  phosphate  of  lime  feed  or  precipitated  phosphate  of 
lime,  is  a  by-product  of  the  manufacture  of  glue  from  bones.  The  bones 
are  cleaned  and  ground  and  the  salts  are  extracted  with  hydrochloric 
acid,  precipitated  with  milk  of  lime  and  dried.  The  powder  thus  ob- 
tained is  called  bone  feed  meal.  It  contains  about  38  per  cent  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  of  which  90  per  cent  is  citrate-soluble.  It  is  white  or  yel- 
lowish white  in  appearance,  odorless,  and  is  composed,  chemically,  of 
dicalcium  and  tricalcium  phosphate.  The  dicalcium  phosphate  is  readily 
soluble  in  citric  acid.  It  is  therefore  an  index  of  value,  and  the  amount 
present  should  be  given  in  the  manufacturer's  guaranty.  These  prepara- 
tions should  be  free  from  toxic  substances,  especially  sodium  fluorid, 
which,  in  recent  years,  has  occasionally  been  found  present  to  the  extent 
of  from  4  to  5  per  cent.    It  has  caused  serious  poisoning. 

Other  substances  besides  those  just  mentioned  are  now  and  then  put 
upon  the  market.  They  consist  mainly  of  tricalcium  phosphate,  are 
therefore  hard  to  digest  and  of  low  value  (degummed  bone  meal,  bone 
ash,  ground  mineral  phosphate,  etc.) 

The  experiments  of  Koehler  throw  light  upon  the  digestibility  or  as- 
similability  of  some  of  these  salts.  Of  dicalcium  phosphate  55  per  cent, 
precipitated  tricalcium  phosphate  37  per  cent,  degummed  bone  meal  13 
per  cent  and  bone  ash  14  per  cent  are  assimilable. 

Cock  chafers  or  May  hugs  {Melolontha  vulgaris)  in  seasons  when 
they  are  plentiful  are  used  as  feed  for  swine.  To  prevent  invasions  with 
Echynorrhynchus  gigas,  of  which  the  grub  of  the  May  bug  is  the  inter- 
mediate host,  it  is  advisable  to  boil  the  "bugs"  (beetles)  before  feeding. 

XL    Substitute  Feeding  Stuffs 

Most  of  the  substitute  feeding  stuffs  have  already  been  referred  to 
and  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapters.  A  few  additional  substances  of 
this  character  are  mentioned  below. 

Sea  algae. — Sea  wrack  or  seaweed  (Fucus  serratus,  closely  related  to 
the  widely  prevalent  F.  vesiculosis)  and  Laminaria  flexicaulis  (kelp  or 
devil's  apron,  the  fronds  of  which  commonly  grow  in  clusters  and  are 
sometimes  30  to  50  feet  in  length)  have  been  successfully  used  in  feed- 
ing experiments*  with  horses  (Sauvageau  and  Moreau).  Many  Lam- 
inaria are  rich  in  mannite  and  are  used  as  food  by  the  Chinese  and  Jap- 
anese.   Horses  do  not  like  them  at  first  but  become  accustomed  to  them. 

Dog  biscuits  before  the  war  were  made  from  poor-grade  wheat  flour, 
coarse  oat  and  corn  meal,  beets,  slaughterhouse  refuse  and  American 
tankage,  and  contained  on  the  average  9.5  to  10.5  per  cent  of  water,  2.5 
to  3.9  per  cent  of  salts  (phosphoric  acid  0.6  to  1.2  per  cent),  fat  3.3  to  4.1 
per  cent,  crude  protein  10.5  to  22.7  per  cent  and  nitrogen-free  extract 
60.6  to  66  per  cent.  These  analyses  have  only  a  relative  value,  since  the 
crude  protein  and  crude  fat  content  could  easily  be  supplied  with  low- 


CALCULATION  OF  THE  MONEY  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS    129 

grade  material.  Necessary  requirements  for  these  biscuits  are  that  thej 
serve  the  purpose  of  complete  rations  for  dogs  and  that  they  be  whole- 
some. Dog  biscuits  put  on  the  market  during  and  after  the  war  fre- 
quently contained  substances  indigestible  for  carnivora,  such  as  chaff, 
hay,  seed  hulls,  leaves,  sawdust,  bran  refuse,  excessive  amounts  of  salts 
in  the  form  of  carbonate  of  lime,  ground  and  cracked  bone,  etc.  Dogs 
nourished  on  these  products  for  any  length  of  time  inevitably  suffer  in 
health  (Hanslian). 

XII.    Calculation  of  the  Money  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs 

In  the  preface  of  this  work  attention  was  directed  to  the  necessity  of  utilizing  every 
possible  home  product  for  feeding  purposes.  Whenever  possible,  low-priced  feed- 
ing stufifs  should  be  used  to  replace  expensive  material.  Production  expense  should 
be  reduced  to  the  minimum.  Feeding  rations  should  be  accurately  adjusted  to  the 
requirements  of  each  individual  animal.  The  least  deficiency,  or  the  least  excess, 
should  alike  be  regarded  as  unnecessary  waste  of  material. 

The  market  prices  of  many  feeding  stufifs  ofifered  to  the  public  are  far  from 
being  commensurate  to  their  actual  value.  This  is  true  in  both  senses  of  the 
word.  While  the  content  of  digestible  nutrients  was  formerly  used  as  the  sole  basis 
in  calculating  the  money  value  of  feeding  stuffs,  Kellner  has  demonstrated  the 
error  of  this  method.  A  more  accurate  method  consists  in  using  the  starch  value 
of  a  given  feed,  with  due  consideration  of  the  digestible  albumen  content,  as  a  basis 
for  calculation.  In  addition,  the  following  points  should  be  considered,  viz. :  agree- 
ableness,  keeping  quality,  value  of  the  resulting  manure,  and  the  expense  of  trans- 
portation, storage  and  preparation. 

According  to  estimates  made  on  the  basis  of  average  prices  for  1907  and  1908, 
the  value  of  1  kg.  of  digestible  albumen  is  26  pfennigs,  and  of  1  kg.  starch  value 
nearly  20  pfennigs  (3J4  and  2J^  cents  per  pound,  respectively).  To  estimate  the 
actual  value  of  a  feeding  stuff  according  to  these  values,  multiply  the  starch  value 
of  100  pounds  of  the  feeding  stuff  in  question  by  2^  cents,  and  add  to  this  the 
product  obtained  from  the  figure  indicating  the  digestible  albumen  content  in  100  kg. 
or  100  pounds  respectivelj-.  Thus,  3%  minus  2J/2  equals  }i  cent;  or,  to  reduce  to 
decimals,  3.25  minus  2.50  equals  0.75. 

For  example :  Oats  contain  7.2  per  cent  digestible  albumen  and  a  starch  value 
of  59.7  per  cent    The  value  of  100  pounds  is  estimated  as  follows: 

59.7  times  2.5     cents  equals  $1.4925 
7.2  times  0.75  cents  equals    0.54 

Total    $2.0325 

According  to  the  rules  adopted  by  the  Association  of  German  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, the  money  value  of  feeding  stuffs  may  be  estimated  by  multiplying  the  protein- 
and  fat  contents  by  2,  the  nitrogen-free  extract  content  by  1,  adding  the  three  prod- 
ucts thus  obtained  and  dividing  the  price  of  the  feeding  stuff  by  the  sum.  The 
quotient  will  be  the  price  unit  of  the  feeding  stuff  in  question. 

Example  for  estimating  the  price  unit  of  peanut  cake  containing  45.5  per  cent 
protein,  7.5  per  cent  fat  and  25.6  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract,  the  market  price 
being  $1.88  per  100  pounds: 

Protein    45.5  by  2=   91.0 

Fat  7.5  by  2=    15.0 

Nitrogen-free  extract  25.6  by  1  =  25.6 

Total   131.6 

1.88 

Dividing  the  price  $1.88  bv  131.6= $0.1444-=Price  unit. 

131.6 

With  the  price  unit  in  our  possession,  the  trade  allowance  or  rebate  due  from  the 
merchant  is  easily  calculated  according  to  the  instructions  given  on  page  130. 


130  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

A  few  years  ago  Neubauer  prepared  a  graphic  table  showing  at  a  glance  the  actual 
money  value  of  a  list  of  feeding  stuffs.  The  feeding  stuff  number  and  the  albumen 
or  digestible  protein  number  constituted  the  basis  of  the  calculations. 

The  feeding  stuff  number  or  index  of  a  feeding  stuff  represents  the  amount  of 
feeding  stuff  required  to  furnish  a  starch  value  of  100  per  cent.  Peanut  cake,  for 
example,  with  a  starch  value  of  77.5  per  cent,  contains,  in  addition,  45.2  per  cent 
of  digestible  protein  or  albumen.  Accordingly  its  feeding  stuff  index  would 
be  100  X  100 

=  129.0 

77.5 

100X100 

Coarse  wheat  bran  with  a  starch  value  of  42.6  = =:  234.7 

42.6 

The  albumen  index  indicates  the  amount  of  digestible  albumen  contained  in  100 
starch  values  of  a  given  feeding  stuff.  Peanut  cake,  for  example,  contains,  in  addi- 
tion to  a  starch  value  of  77.5  per  cent,  digestible  albumen  to  the  extent  of  45.2  per 
cent.     Its  albumen  index,  therefore,  is  45.2  X  100 

=  58.3 

77.5 

The  albumen  index  of  wheat  bran  with  a  starch  value  of  42.6  per  cent  and  9.8  per 
cent  albumen  content  is  9.8  X  100  And  so  on  for  other  feeding  stuffs. 

=  23. 

42.6 

As  will  be  explained  more  in  detail  in  the  chapter  on  feed  standardization,  feeding 
rations  on  farms  are  usually  compounded,  or  should  be,  as  far  as  possible  or  prac- 
ticable, with  products  of  the  farm  itself.  The  starch  value  and  the  albumen  content 
is  ascertained  and  then  an  estimate  is  made  of  what  is  lacking  to  make  the  ration 
complete.     The  deficiency  is  then  corrected  by  the  addition  of  purchased  ingredients. 

To  illustrate: 

Swine,  during  the  first  fattening  period,  require,  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight, 
daily — 3  pounds  digestible  albumen  and  27.5  pounds  starch  value. 

Farm-grown  products  will  supply — 2,5  pounds  digestible  albumen,  and  25.0  pounds 
starch  value. 

There  remains  to  be  supplied  by  purchase — 0.5  pounds  digestible  albumen  and  2.5 
pounds  starch  value. 

0.5  X  100 

The  albumen  index  of  the  supplementary  feed  is  =  20. 

2.5 

The  nutrients  which  are  lacking  are  rarely  supplied  by  a  single  feeding  stuff,  but 
usually  by  two  or  three.     If  two  are  decided  upon  we  select  one  with  a  lower,  an- 
other with  a  higher  albumen  index  than  the  correction  requires. 
To  illustrate :     If  we  have  the  choice  of 

Cottonseed  meal,   with  an  albumen  index  of  53.4 

Linseed  cake 37.9 

Palmseed  cake  18.7 

Feed  barley    11.8 

we  select  the  two  feeding  stuffs  best  suited  for  the  purpose.  The  combination  sought 
is  one  with  an  albvnnen  index  of  20  and  must  therefore  be  a  mixture  of  two  of  the 
available  feeding  stuffs  with  a  starch  value  of  100  and  an  albumen  index  of  20.1''^ 

Neubauer's  "feeding-stuff  price  chart"  is  a  convenient  graphic  guide  for  the  selec- 
tion of  the  most  economical  "pair"  of  feeding  stuffs  necessary  to  balance  a  deficient 
farm-grown  ration.  It  consists  of  a  single  sheet,  ruled  in  millimeter  spaces.  The 
verticle  base  line  (ordinate)  contains  the  albumen  indices  of  the  various  feeding 
stuffs,  expressed  in  millimeter  spaces  and  extended  in  parallels  to  the  horizontal  base 
line  (abscissa).     The  feeding  stuff  index  of  the  feeding  stuff  in  question  is  noted 

17Since  the  feeding  value  of  the  digestible  albumen  is  included  in  the  starch  value,  and  since 
one  pound  of  digestible  albumen  is  equal  in  feeding  value  to  about  one  (exactly  0.94)  pound  of 
starch  value,  in  estimating  the  value  of  a  feeding  stuff  or  ration  we  add,  for  each  pound  of 
digestible  albumen,  not  its  cost  price,  but  the  difference  between  its  cost  price  and  the  cost  price 
of  one  pound  of  starch  value,  viz.,  not  3.25  cents,  but  the  difference  between  3.25  cents  and  2.50 
cents,   or  0.75   cent,  to  the  cost  of  each  pound   of  digestible   albumen. 


EXAMINATION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  131 

on  these  horizontal  lines.  Supposing  it  is  desired  to  substitute  two  other  feeding 
stuffs  (a  pair)  like  dry  yeast  and  dried  potatoes  for  a  single  feeding  stuff  like,  for 
example,  oats.  All  that  is  necessary  to  determine  the  amounts  of  each  is  to  locate 
the  points  of  intersection  of  the  coordinates  (the  ordinate  and  the  abscissa)  of  the 
feeding  stuff  index  of  one  of  the  feeding  stuffs  of  the  combination  sought  and  the 
albumen  index  of  the  other  of  the  feeding  stuffs  of  the  proposed  combination.  The 
points  of  intersection  of  these  two  lines  with  the  line  indicating  the  feeding  stuff 
to  be  replaced  indicate  the  amounts  of  the  two  substitutes  which,  together,  have  the 
same  starch  value  and  the  same  content  of  digestible  albumen  as  the  feeding  stuff 
(oats)  to  be  replaced. 

XIII.    Examination  or  Inspection  of  Feeding  Stuffs 
Meal,  Grits  and  Cake 

The  value  of  a  feeding  stuff  is  determined  by  its  purity,  soundness  and  nutrient 
content.  The  purity  and  soundness  of  soiling  crops,  roughage,  root  crops  or  of 
whole  grains  are  usually  easily  ascertained.  The  suggestions  made  along  these 
lines  in  the  chapters  on  feeding  stuffs  and  contaminations  and  admixtures  will  suffice 
for  this  purpose.  The  nutrient  content  of  these  feeding  stuffs  may  also  be  appro.xi- 
mately  estimated  when  the  conditions  of  growth  and  manner  of  harvesting  are 
known.  On  the  other  hand,  the  estimation  of  the  value,  etc.,  of  meal,  grits,  cake,  etc., 
may  meet  with  greater  difficulties.  Our  ordinary  senses,  sight,  smell,  taste  and 
feeling,  are  not  sufficient  for  this  purpose.  It  is  rather  necessary  to  resort  to  chem- 
ical analysis  and  microscopical  examination.  In  general,  it  would  be  a  safe  practice 
not  to  purchase  feeding  stuffs  that  are  sold  under  indefinite  names,  like  Victoria 
feed,  blood  concentrate,  oatworth,  calf  meal,  groats,  or  other  meaningless  terms. 
As  a  rule  the  cost  of  these  substances  bears  no  definite  relation  to  their  actual  value. 
They  frequently  contain  indigestible,  spoiled,  or  low-grade  material  or  even  injurious 
waste  products.  Even  guaranties  of  protein  and  fat  content  do  not  protect  against 
fraud.  Sometimes  these  products  are  almost  entirely  indigestible  and  consequently 
vrorthless.  Mahwa  or  bassia  meal,  for  instance,  which  stock  does  not  even  like, 
contains  27  per  cent  of  crude  protein  and  therefore  appears  rich  in  albumen  and 
valuable,  but  of  the  27  per  cent  of  crude  protein  present,  less  than  1  per  cent  con- 
sists of  digestible  albumen.  Cocoa  shells,  with  14  per  cent  of  crude  protein,  contain 
no  digestible  albumen  whatever.  Peanut  hulls,  millet  shells,  rice  chaff,  etc.,  all 
belong  to  a  class  of  feeding  stuffs  generally  used  but  are,  in  reality,  worthless  filler. 

The  nutrient  contents  are  determined  according  to  the  methods  given  on  page  3 
and  the  following  pages.  As  a  rule,  these  determinations  are  made  to  the  best  advan- 
tage by  the  agricultural  experiment  stations. 

General  Rules  for  the  Purchase  of  Commercial  Feeding  Stuffs 

The  Feeding  Stuff  Section  of  the  German  Agricultural  Society  and  the  Associa- 
tion of  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  of  the  GeiTnan  Empire  have  established 
the  following  rules  for  the  trade  in  feeding  stuffs : 

1.  Every  sale  shall  be  accompanied  by  a  guaranty — (a)  Of  the  exact  nature  of  the 
feeding  stuff,  its  soundness  and  purity  (freedom  from  foreign  substances,  inferior 
material,  indifferent  or  injurious  admixtures  not  necessarily  a  part  of  the  character 
of  feed  indicated  by  the  name). 

(b)    Minimum  content  of  the  nutrients  which  determine  its  value. 

2.  The  guaranty  shall  be  on  paper,  either  in  the  foifm  of  a  signed  quotation,  bill 
of  sale  or  invoice.  Retail  sales,  under  200  pounds,  shall  be  guaranteed  by  a  special 
written  statement  to  the  purchaser.  The  guaranty  shall  contain  the  name  and  char- 
acter of  the  feeding  stuff,  guaranteed  composition,  origin  (when  this  is  an  indica- 
tion of  definite  quality),  and  furthermore,  whether,  and  to  what  extent,  reimburse- 
ment will  be  made  for  deficiencies. 

Retail  packages  shall  be  marked  on  the  container  with  a  printed  copy  of  the  guar- 
anty or  by  means  of  a  glued  label  or  a  metal  or  paper  tag  attached  to  a  certain 
designated  portion  of  the  package. 

The  labels  or  printed  matter  on  the  containers  shall  contain  the  name  of  the 
dealer  and  his  trade  mark,  weight  of  the  package,  name  of  the  feeding  stuff, 
guaranteed  chemical  composition  in  unequivocal  terms  (fat,  protein,  etc.),  the  time 
or  date  up  to  which  adjustments  will  be  made,  the  name  of  the  experiment  station 


132  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

which  controls  or  checks  the  products  of  the  firm  in  question,  and  the  terms  and 
conditions  under  which  the  experiment  station  in  question  will  verify  the  statements 
contained  in  the  guaranty. 

3.  The  guaranty  of  the  nutrients  which  determine  the  value  of  the  feeding  stuff 
shall  have  reference  in  all  cases  to  the  protein  and  fat,  but  for  the  carbohydrates 
only  when  the  latter  are  expressly  included  in  the  statement.  The  guaranty  for 
fat  and  protein  shall  be  stated  in  separate  terms  for  each  ingredient.  The  guaran- 
teed contents  shall  refer  to  the  minimum  content  of  each  nutrient.  The  indication 
of  a  variable  minimum,  like  18  to  20  per  cent,  shall  not  be  permitted. 

The  seller  shall  be  responsible  to  the  purchaser  for  all  deficiencies  below  the  guar- 
anteed contents.  Adjustments  shall  be  made  either  (1)  according  to  the  principle 
of  compensating  ingredients  or  (2)  according  to  the  principle  of  chemical  latitude. 

a.  Compensating  ingredients. — By  this  is  understood  the  substitution,  according  to 
actual  money  value,  of  one  ingredient  that  may  be  present  in  excess,  for  another 
that  may  be  below  the  guaranteed  percentage. 

The  limits  for  fat  within  which  this  method  of  adjustment  is  permissible  are  1  per 
cent  in  feeding  stuffs  of  10  per  cent  or  less  fat  guaranty,  or  2  per  cent  in  feeding 
stuffs  of  higher  guaranteed  fat  content. 

The  limits  for  protein  are  3  per  cent  but  not  exceeding  10  per  cent  of  the  guar- 
anteed protein  content. 

The  limits  for  this  method  of  adjustment  in  the  case  of  deficiency  of  guaranteed 
carbohydrates  or  nitrogen-free  extract  are  5  per  cent. 

In  the  case  of  certain  specified  feeding  stuffs,  special  written  agreements  between 
buyer  and  seller  constitute  the  basis  of  adjustments. 

b.  Chemical  latitude. — Chemical  latitude  shall  be  permitted  only  upon  special 
agreement  between  buyer  and  seller.  The  words  "within  chemical  latitude"  inserted 
in  the  guaranty  shall  suffice  for  this  purpose.  This  means  that  deficiencies  up  to  1^ 
per  cent  of  crude  protein  or  ^  per  cent  of  fat  shall  be  disregarded  unless  the  defi- 
ciency exceeds  either  of  these  respective  figures,  in  which  case  full  compensation 
or  adjustment  shall  be  made  to  the  buyer. 

In  the  calculation  of  compensation  for  deficiency  in  nutrient  contents  one  part  of 
crude  protein  is  estimated  at  the  same  money  value  as  one  part  of  fat. 

The  value  of  one  part  of  carbohydrates  (or  nitrogen-free  extract)  is  based  on 
methods  of  calculation  determined  by  the  Association  of  Agricultural  Experiment 
Stations  (see  p.  131). 

The  calculation  of  compensation  or  damages  for  deficiency  of  nutrient  contents 
shall  be  based  entirely  upon  nutrients  specifically  guaranteed. 

4.  When  feeding  stuffs  are  sold  on  the  basis  of  actual  percentage  of  nutrients 
present,  there  can  be  no  basis  on  which  compensation  may  be  demanded. 

5.  Feeding  stuffs  containing  spoiled,  unsound  or  inferior  ingredients  not  designated 
in  the  name  or  on  the  label,  upon  presentation  of  proof  to  this  effect,  may  be  re- 
turned and  shall  be  accepted  by  the  seller,  and  the  latter  shall,  in  addition,  be 
liable  for  all  expenses  incurred  in  the  transaction. 

6.  The  determination  of  the  contents  of  feeding  stuffs  shall  be  made  by  agricul- 
tural experiment  stations  mutually  agreed  upon  by  buyer  and  seller.  Samples  of 
feeding  stuffs  for  chemical  analysis  shall  be  taken  as  follows: 

7.  The  sample  shall  be  taken  by  the  consignee  or  his  agent  at  the  receiving  station 
of  the  railroad,  or  within  three  days  after  delivery  at  final  destination  on  the  farm, 
etc.,  in  the  presence  of  an  agent  of  the  seller  or  of  a  disinterested  person  who  has 
previously  been  instructed  as  to  these  conditions,  and  in  the  manner  following : 

a.  In  the  case  of  oil  cake,  at  least  20  whole  cakes  shall  be  taken  from  as  many 
different  portions  of  the  shipment.  The  cakes  shall  then  be  broken  into  pieces  of 
about  the  size  of  a  walnut,  either  by  passing  through  a  thoroughly  cleaned  oil-cake 
crusher  or  by  other  suitable  means.  The  crushed  mass  shall  then  be  thoroughly 
mixed  and  a  four-pound  sample  removed.  The  particles  composing  the  sample 
shall  not  be  further  reduced  in  size. 

b.  In  the  case  of  grains,  meals,  brans,  etc.,  a  suitably  constructed  sampler  shall 
be  inserted  horizontically  into  the  sacks  while  the  latter  are  lying  on  the  floor,  or. 
in  case  a  sampler  is  not  available,  a  spoon  or  scoop  may  be  used.  The  sample  should 
not  be  taken  with  the  hands.  Fifteen  per  cent  or  more  of  the  sacks  must  be  sampled, 
and  at  least  five  sacks.  If  there  are  less  than  five  sacks  in  the  shipment  all  of  them 
must  be  sampled.  The  samples  should  be  taken  from  different  portions  of  the  sacks, 
not  all  from  the  middle  or  center. 


HYGIENIC  EXAMINATION  133 

If  the  total  sample  material  greatly  exceeds  four  pounds  in  weight,  it  should  be 
spread  out  on  a  large,  clean  sheet  of  paper  and  carefully  and  thoroughly  mixed. 
The  mass  should  then  be  spread  out  into  a  layer  about  one  inch  thick  and  four 
pounds  of  the  same  removed  for  a  sample.  The  entire  thickness  of  the  layer  should 
be  used  in  making  the  sample.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to  include  the  finer  par- 
ticles, like  sand,  etc.,  which  are  apt  to  be  found  in  the  lower  portions  of  the  layer 
or  next  to  the  paper.  Lumpy  portions  appearing  in  the  samples  should  not  be 
crushed. 

Wet  or  spoiled  sacks  should  not  be  included  in  the  general  sample,  but  should  be 
sampled  separately.  It  is  also  permissible  to  take  the  required  number  of  sacks, 
empty  them  on  a  clean  floor  and  mix  the  entire  mass  thoroughly,  .level  off  in  a  layer 
about  one  foot  in  thickness  and  then  by  means  of  a  scoop,  as  described  above,  take 
a  mixed  sample  from  at  least  twenty  different  places,  but  not  from  the  edges  of  the 
mass.  When  the  suspected  error  is  of  especial  importance  this  method  is  preferable 
to  the  one  first  described. 

If  the  material  is  delivered  in  bulk,  on  a  pile,  the  latter  should  be  reduced  to  a 
level  mass,  about  one  foot  thick,  and  samples  taken  in  the  same  manner. 

c.  The  samples  thus  procured  should  be  divided  into  three  sub-samples  of  at 
least  one-half  pound  each.  The  latter  are  then  placed  into  dry  nonporous  containers, 
preferably  of  tin  or  glass,  hermetically  closed,  sealed  and  marked  with  the  char- 
acter of  the  contents.  One  sample  is  sent  to  the  experiment  station,  the  second  is 
kept  by  the  consignee,  in  a  dry  place,  for  possible  future  use,  and  the  third  sample 
is  held  at  the  disposal  of  the  seller  or  shipper. 

d.  A  copy  of  the  foregoing  instructions  for  taking  the  sample  shall  be  furnished 
by  the  seller  to  accompany  the  shipment  of  a  feeding  stuff,  in  addition  to  an  affidavit 
by  the  seller,  in  which  is  indicated  the  brand,  sack  number,  weight  and  guaranty  of 
contents,  as  well  as  car  number  (or  name  of  ship  or  boit)  and  name  of  shipper.  In 
disputed  cases,  samples  are  not  recognized  as  valid  without  such  affidavit. 

Agreements  As  to  Classification  for  Quality  or  Grade 

1.  Qualitative  tests  of  all  feeding  stuffs  shall  be  required  when  they  contain  more 
than  normal  percentages  of  sand  or  mineral  admixtures.  When  these  exceed  1  per 
cent,  quantitative  determinations  shall  be  made  by  incineration  and  extracting  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  results  reported  to  the  sender  of  the  sample. 

2.  The  Standing  Committee  on  Feeding  Stuffs  recommends  that,  in  the  analysis 
of  all  brans,  the  presence  or  absence  of  apparently  rninjured  weed  seeds,  be  re- 
ported. When  these  are  present,  attention  should  be  directed  to  the  fact  that  they 
are  indications  of  adulteration  with  screenings.  The  determination  of  the  number 
of  seeds  per  kilogram  and  their  l;otanical  identification  shall  be  a  matter  of  choice 
or  judgment. 

3.  If  smut  spores  are  present  in  excessive  numbers,  attention  should  be  called  to 
this  fact. 

Hygienic  Examination 

In  detennining  the  hygienic  condition^^  of  feeding  stuffs,  greatest  stress  should 
be  placed  on  purity  and  soundness.  The  only  occasion  offered  the  veterinarian  to 
express  an  opinion  in  regard  lo  the  hygienic  condition  of  feeding  stuffs  is  when 
disease  or  illness  follows  its  ingestion.  In  such  cases  the  samples  examined  are 
chosen  as  far  as  possible  from  those  parts  of  the  feed  that  have  caused  the  injury. 
In  such  cases  there  is  no  object  in  taking  general  samples,  or  "average"  samples. 
This  is  a  different  matter  from  the  selection  of  a  sample  of  feeding  stuff  proposed 
for  purchase.    In  the  latter  case  an  "average''  sample  would  be  sought. 

For  examining  concentrates  for  the  purposes  here  in  view  we  resort  to  (1)  chem- 
ical, (2)  biological  (serological).  (3)  above  all,  microscopical  methods  and  (4) 
animal  inoculation. 

It  would  be  necessary  to  go  far  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work  if  we  should  un- 
dertake to  treat  this  subject  with  any  degree  of  completeness.  We  shall  therefore 
limit  ourselves  to  the  giving  of  a  few  hints  and  refer  the  reader  to  the  text  books 
or  handbooks  of  Beyhien,  Hartwich  and  Klimmer,  Koenig,  and  Boehmer. 


iSExaminations  or  analyses  of  this  character  are   made  by   all  hygienic  institutes  of  veterinary 
colleges  as  well  as  by  the   agricultural  experiment  stations  (in   Germany). 


134  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

I.     CHEMICAL  EXAMINATION 

A.  Determination    of    Albumen,    Fat,    Nitrogen-Free    Extract,    Crude    Fiber, 

Mineral  Matter  or  Ash  and  Water 

See  page  3,  etc. 

B.  Determination  of  Sand,  Lime,  Infusorial  Earth,  Barite  and  Other  Minerals 

Sand,  gypsum,  barite  and  other  minerals  admixed  with  feeding  stuffs  may  be 
injurious  to  the  health  of  animals.  The  following  methods  are  employed  for  their 
detection. 

Chloroform  test. — Agitate  5  to  10  grams  of  the  feeding  stuff  with  chloroform. 
The  feeding  stuff  material  will  float  and  the  sand,  etc.,  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the 
flask.     Separation  and  quantitative  determination  follows. 

Carbonic  acid  test. — The  feeding  stuff  is  washed  off  with  water  or  chloroform, 
as  indicated  above,  and  the  residue  treated  with  dilute  mineral  acid.  The  presence 
of  lime  is  indicated  by  effervescence  (carbonic  acid  gas). 

Ash  analysis  (see  p.  4). — The  determined  ash  content  is  compared  with  that  of 
the  unadulterated  feeding  stuff.  To  determine  the  amount  of  sand  in  the  ash  the 
latter  is  treated  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  and  the  residue  boiled  in  a  5  percent 
solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda.  The  residue  consists  of  sand,  clay  (earth)  and  a 
part  of  the  un-dissolved  silicic  acid  present  in  the  glumes  or  chaff. 

The  permissible  sand  content  in  feeding  stuffs  is  0.2  to  0.3  percent. 

C.     Determination  of  Com  Cockle,  Ergot,  etc.,  in  Meals 
by  Means  of  Vogl's  Reagent. 

To  2  grams  of  meal,  placed  in  a  test  tube,  add  10  c.c.  of  70  percent  alcohol  con- 
taining 5  percent  of  hydrochloric  acid ;  agitate  thoroughly,  heat  slightly  and  allow 
to  settle. 

If  the  fluid  remains  colorless — Wheat  and  rye. 

If  the  fluid  becomes  yellowish — Ryg  (sometimes),  corn,  barley,  oats,  peas. 

If  the  fluid  becomes  orange — (Rye,  barley,  corn),  rice,  millet,  corn,  cockle,  bearded 
darnel. 

If  the  fluid  becomes  red — (Rye,  barley,  corn,  rice,  millet)  vetches,  ergot. 

If  the  fluid  becomes  bluish  green  to  green — Cow  wheat  and  yellow  rattle  (Hart- 
mann ) . 

Seed  skins  (bran)  of  green  rye  produce  a  red  color;  skins  of  yellow  rye  grains, 
a  pale  ocher  yellow ;  both  together  produce  an  orange  color.  The  seed  skins  of 
wheat  do  not  give  this  reaction;  those  of  barley  as  a  rule  also  fail  to  give  it.  Vogl's 
reaction  is  not  applicable  to  rye  bran. 

Vogl's  reaction  is  therefore  ambiguous.  It  serves  mainly  as  a  guide  and  to  as- 
sist in  finding  suspicious  material.  To  complete  the  latter  process  the  slightly 
warmed  solution  or  mixture  is  poured  on  a  piece  of  blotting  paper  and  the  stained 
particles  picked  out  for  microscopic  examination. 

Ergot  stains  the  solution  red.  The  addition  of  ether  and  a  few  drops  of  sul- 
phuric acid  changes  this  to  violet.  If  the  red  color  is  due  to  vetches,  the  addition 
of  the  latter  reagents  produces  a  greenish  yellow  precipitate. 

The  detection  of  corn  cockle  with  Vogl's  reaction  is  assisted  by  previous  moisten- 
ing of  the  meal  in  question  with  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  (intensified  reaction). 
The  presence  of  0.8  percent  of  corn  cockle  meal  (with  hulls  of  cockle)  may  be  de- 
tected by  this  method.  Microscopical  examination  gives  more  definite  results  (pp. 
140-145). 

D.    lodin-Starch  Reaction 

Certain  by-products  of  oil  production  contain  mere  traces  of  starch  (linseed  cake 
and  meal).  Cottonseed  by-products  contain  no  starch  whatever.  On  the  other 
hand  the  seeds  of  weeds  that  are  frequently  used  to  adulterate  oil  by-products  usually 
contain  more  or  less  starch. 

The  presence  of  starch  is  detected  as  follows:  One  gram  of  the  suspected  meal 
is  boiled  in  about  10  c.c.  of  water,  allowed  to  cool,  and  treated  with  a  few  drops 
of  Lugol's  solution   (1:10:300)    (iodin,  potassium  iodid  10,  water  200).     A  result- 
ing blue  or  blackish  blue  color  indicates  the  presence  of  starch   (see  p.  137). 
E.     Testing  Spoiled  Feeding  Stuffs 

Spoiled  meals  have  an  unpleasant  musty  or  moldy  odor.  Heating  in  water  or 
potash  solution  intensifies  the  odor.  Gawalowsky's  test  is  the  most  reliable.  Mix 
1  gram  of  the  suspected  meal  with  4  to  5  c.c.  of  potash  solution  in  a  wide  test  tube. 


BIOLOGICAL  EXAMINATION  135 

In  the  course  of  ten  minutes  this  mixture  is  converted  into  a  gluey  or  pasty  mass 
The  mass  in  the  test  tube  is  then  heated  to  a  temperature  not  exceeding  86°  F.  and 
a  50  percent  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  carefully  added.  Spoiled  meals  will  give 
a  characteristic,  disagreeable  odor,  while  fresh  or  unspoiled  meals  will  give  an 
odor  of  paste  or  one  resembling  meat  broth. 

2.    Biological  (Serological)   Examination 

Biological  methods  of  examination  have  now  attained  importance  in  the  detection 
of  sources  of  adulteration  and  contamination  of  feeding  stuffs.  For  the  purposes 
in  question,  precipitation  and  complement  fixation  are  the  chief  biological  methods 
employed.     Anaphylaxis   has   only  a   very  limited   application. 

The  biological  methods  are  specific  albumen   reactions. 

Biological  reactions  are  resorted  to,  above  all,  in  cases  where  the  adulterants  oi 
undesirable  admixtures  are  not  sufficiently  characteristic  morphologically  to  be 
definitely  recognizable  by  botanico-microscopical  means.  Biological  reactions  have 
become  of  considerable  importance  in  the  detection  of  castor  oil  seeds.  While  the 
seed  skins  are  easily  recognized  by  their  radial  palisade  cells  (Fig.  84),  the  botanico- 
microscopical  determination  of  the  toxic  decorticated  seeds,  which  have  in  late 
years  been  used  as  adulterants  of  oil  cake,  is  not  sufficiently  accurate. 

Complement  fi.xation  with  specific  serum  is  a  definite  means  for  the  detection  of 
the  poisonous  castor  oil  beans.  This  reaction  is  strictly  specific  and  will  reveal  the 
presence  of  0.5  percent  of  castor  oil  beans  in  a  feeding  stuff.  The  toxic  principle 
of  the  castor  oil  bean  is  destroyed  by  heating  at  212°  F.  for  five  minutes.  Seeds 
thus  treated   fail  to  give  the  complement  fixation  reaction. 

With  reference  to  technic  of  the  complement  fixation  test,  see  Klimmer,  Handbuch 
der  Nahrungsmitteluntersuchung,  Vol.  3.  Anti-ricin  serum  may  be  obtained  from 
Merck,  Darmstadt,  or  may  easily  be  produced  by  careful  immunization  of  rabbits. 
The  first  dose  per  1  kg.  live  weight  consists  of  0.001  mg.  ricin  Merck,  subcutaneously 
injected,  followed  in  8  to  10  days  with  3  to  5  or  8  to  10  times  the  first  dose.  In 
regard  to  testing  the  serum,  see  Klimmer's  work  just  referred  to. 

According  to  Miessner,  as  well  as  according  to  Pfeiler  and  Engelhardt,  the  pre- 
cipitation test  is  also  of  practical  value.  5  percent  adulterations,  sometimes  as  low 
as  1  per  cent,  may  be  detected  with  certainty. 

Whether  the  "rapid  method"  (Thermo-precipitation)  recently  recommended  by 
Kranich  gives  sufficiently  accurate  or  reliable  results  is  yet  to  be  demonstrated.  The 
difficulties  attending  the  use  of  the  precipitation  test  in  the  detection  of  the  source  of 
vegetable  albumens  lie  in  the  fact  that  plant  extracts  (bean  meal,  rice,  barley,  field 
beans,  soy  beans.  Stramonium,  castor  oil  beans,  etc.)  frequently  produce  precipitates 
with  normal  sera. 

Agglutinins  (conglutinins)  for  red  corpuscles  which  are  present  in  some  plants 
are  of  value  only  under  certain  specific  conditions  and  when  used  with  the  great- 
est care,  for  the  differentiation  of  vegetable  substances.  They  are  not  adapted  for 
general  use  because  they  occur  in  a  great  variety  of  toxic  (Ricinus,  Croton,  Datura) 
as  well  as  harmless  (beans,  peas,  lentils,  vetches)  plants. 

The  hemolysins  are  more  promising  in  this  respect.  They  possess  the  property 
of  dissolving  washed  red  blood  corpuscles  in  isotonic  sodium  chlorid  solution  (0.85 
to  1  percent)  (see  Klimmer,  loc.  cit.,  p.  136).  They  occur,  it  seems,  in  only  a  very 
few  species  of  plants.  The  best  known  vegetable  hemolysin  is  saponin  which,  as 
is  well  known,  is  the  toxic  principle  of  corn  cockle  (Agrostemma  githago).  Saponin 
occurs  also  in  Saponaria  officinalis  (soapwort)  and  in  Delphinium  (larkspur),  both 
poisonous.  The  fact  that  it  also  occurs  in  the  seeds  of  Atriplex  (notchweed)  and 
Sorghmn^  saccharatxmi  is  of  little  importance,  since  it  is  present  in  traces  only. 
Hemolysins  have  also  been  found  in  the  seeds  of  the  sand  vetch  or  winter  vetch  and 
in  the  common  vetch  (Vicia  villosa  and  V.  sativa). 

Hemolysins  may  be  used  for  the  detection  of  corn  cockle  seed  in  meal,  flour,  bran, 
bread,  etc.  This  is  of  special  importance  when  the  characteristic  perisperm  of  the 
corn  cockle  seed  has  been  removed.  Rusconi's  method  consists  in  the  preparation 
of  a  doughy  mass  from  5  grams  of  the  meal  or  bran  in  question  and  4  grams  of 
a  2  percent  solution  of  neutral  sodium  citrate.  This  dough  is  then  worked  through 
a  fine-meshed  linen  cloth  with  the  gradual  addition  of  16  c.c.  of  the  same  citrate 
solution.  The  liquid  thus  obtained  is  filtered,  and  3  c.c.  of  the  clear  filtrate  is 
treated  with  1  c.c.  of  a  suspension  of  red  blood  corpuscles  (1  to  100),  incubated  for 


136  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

2  to  3  hours,  and  then  kept  in  a  refrigerator  for  several  hours.  If  hemolysis  takes 
place,  recognizable  by  clarification  and  red  coloration  of  the  fluid,  saponin  is  present. 
For  the  examination  of  bread,  take  10  grams  of  finely  grated  and  subsequently 
sifted  bread  crumbs,  put  in  an  Erienmeyer  flask  with  5  c.c.  of  90  percent  alcohol  and 
5  c.c.  chloroform.  Bring  to  boiling  point;  filter  at  once  through  dry  filter.  The 
residue  is  treated  in  the  same  manner  with  alcohol  and  chloroform  for  a  second 
and  a  third  time.  The  three  filtrates  are  mixed  and  evaporated  on  a  water  bath. 
The  residue  is  dissolved  in  5  c.c.  of  physiological  salt  solution,  filtered  and,  if  nec- 
essary, neutralized.  Take  2  or  3  c.c.  of  the  clear  filtrate  and  add  a  few  drops  of  a 
suspension  of  red  blood  corpuscles  and  proceed  as  above. 

3.    Microscopic  Examination 

For  microscopic  examination  30  to  50  grams  of  a  good  average  sample  of  feed- 
ing stuff  are  necessary. 

Preparation  of  the  Feeding  Sttiff  for  Microscopical  Examination 

Preliminary  tests  are  made  with  the  naked  eye.     The  material,  if  light  colored, 


Fig.   55.     Sedimentation 


is  spread  out  on  a  smooth  sheet  of  black  paper;  if  dark  colored,  on  a  smooth  sheet 
of  white  paper.  It  is  then  searched  for  clumps  or  particles  of  unusual  size  or  ap- 
pearance that  would  indicate  spoiled  or  impure  material.  These  are  preserved  for 
the  time  being  for  later  examination  for  the  presence  of  mites,  mold  fungi,  etc. 

Oil  cake  should  be  ground  into  a  fine  meal. 

Meals  and  brans  are  separated  into  four  grades  by  means  of  Nobbe's  compound 
sieve,  which  consists  of  three  different  sieves  with  1J4,  1  and  ^  mm.  meshes. 

The  upper  sieve  retains  the  coarse  admixtures,  pieces  of  the  rachis  of  the  heads 
of  grains,  skins  and  glumes  (chaff),  pieces  of  straw,  large  seeds  of  weeds,  vetches, 
corn  cockle,  dodder  seed  and  ergot. 

The  second  sieve  retains  the  smaller  sized  weed  seeds,  Atriplex  (notchweed), 
Capsella  (shepherd's  purse),  Chenopodium  (goosefoot).  Euphorbia  (spurge),  Lep- 
idium  (cress),  Papaver  (poppy),  Urticaria  (nettle),  Galium  (cleavers),  Viola  (vio- 
lets) and  broken  seeds,  millet,  rice  and  pea  hulls,  ground  or  broken  pits  of  stone 
fruits,  oat  hulls,  pieces  of  caterpillars,  moths,  mouse  excrement,  etc.,  as  the  case 
may  be.     (Test  with  magnifying  glass.) 

In  the  third  sieve  the  shells  or  skins  of  weed  seeds  and  mites  are  commonly  found. 
Contents  of  this  sieve  should  be  examined  with  aid  of  a  magnifying  glass. 

The  contents  of  the  fourth  compartment  are  used  for  microscopical  examination 
of  the  character  of  the  starch  grains,  the  presence  of  microorganisms  (smut  and 
mold  fungi)  and,  aided  with  iodin  solution,  the  presence  of  mineral  matter  (sand, 
chalk,  gypsum,  kaolin).  The  presence  of  mineral  substances  is  frequently  sug- 
gested by  the  dust  which  they  make.  They  are  not  stained,  either  blue  or  brown, 
by  iodin. 


EXAMINATION  FOR  STARCH  GRAINS 


137 


Sometimes  Schaffnit's  method  is  used  to  separate  the  various  ingredients  of  meals 
and  brans.  Schaffnit's  agitator  funnel  (Fig.  56)  is  used  by  filling  to  at  least  half 
capacity  with  chloroform  and  about  20  grams  of  meal  or  substance  to  be  examined. 
The  funnel  is  then  closed  as  shown  in  Fig.  56-A,  thoroughly  shaken,  and  set  away 
to  allow  contents  to  separate  and  settle.  Sand,  mineral  matter  and  aleurone  cells 
sink  to  the  bottom,  and  are  separated  from  the  other  parts  as  illustrated  in  Fig. 
56-B.     They  are  released  by  removal  of  the  lower  stopper  and  subjected  to  exami- 


Fig.   56.     Schaffnit's  agitator  funnel. 

nation.     The  lighter  particles  (skins,  hulls,  plant  tissue,  hairs,  mites,  etc.,)   float  on 
the  surface.     They  are  removed  with  the  chloroform  and  examined. 

Examination  for  Starch  Grains 

For  the  examination  of  the  starch  grains  the  contents  of  the  lowest  compartment, 
which  contains  the  finest  meal,  are  used.  Meals  rich  in  fat  rnust  first  have  the 
latter  removed  by  treating  with  ether,  or  alcohol  and  ether,  to  dissolve  and  remove 
the  fat.  After  removal  of  the  fat  the  sample  is  mixed  with  water  or  diluted  glycerin 
to  form  a  thin  milky  or  turbid  fluid.  This  material  is  used  for  the  preparation  of 
microscopic  slides  to  be  examined  with,  and  without  the  addition  of  a  dilute  iodin- 
potassium-iodid  solution.  If  the  meals  are  of  a  cereal  nature,  examine  for  hairs, 
note  their  length  and  compare  thickness  of  walls  with  lumen. 

The  starch  grains  and  cells  of  the  various  species  of  grains  and  leguminous  seeds 
frequently  have  characteristic  forms  which  alone  may  indicate  their  nature  or 
origin. 

The  diameter  of  the  starch  grains  of  the  most  important  species  of  grains  are 
given  below. 


Microns 

Rye   starch    37  to  53 

Wheat  starch   28  to  40 

Barley  starch    20  to  26 

Rice  starch  6 

Oat  starch   4 

Corn   starch    20 

Pea  starch   50  to  57 

Bean   starch    33  to  63 

Lentil  starch   33  to  67 


Microns 

Potato  starch   60  to  185 

Peanut  starch    4  to   25 

Acorn   starch    10  to   30 

Horse-chestnut  starch 5  to   26 

Millet    starch    5  to    15 

Buckwheat  starch    5  to   20 

Poisonous  darnel   2  to     6 

Corn   cockle    1 


138 


THE   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


Fig.   57.     Rye  starch.      (X  300.) 


Fig.  58.     Wheat  starch.     (After  Moeller.)     (X  300.) 


Fig.    59.      Barley    Starch.      (After    Moel- 
ler.)     (X   300.) 


Fig.    60.      Potato   starch. 


EXAMINATION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


139 


Fig.    61.        Oat    starch.        (After     Moeller.)  Fig.    62.       Rice    Starch.       (After    Moeller.) 

(X   300.)  (X   300.) 


Fig.    64.      Buckwheat    Starch. 


Fig.    63.      Corn    Starch.       (After    Moeller.) 
(X   300.) 


m^® 


®    <B 


m 


Fig.    65.      Peanut    Starch. 


Fig.  66.     Bean  Starch. 


140 


THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


^       <0     * 

4  y.  ^ 

««■«'* 

®.\«. 

Fig. 

67.     Acorn   Starch. 

Fig.    68.      Horse-Chestiiut 

Fig. 

69.      Millet    Starch     (I'oi- 

Starch. 

sonous 

;    darnel    and    Polygonum, 

or 

knotgrass). 

The  following  key  will  assist  in  the  determination  of  the  origin  of  starch  grains. 
Since  some  of  the  characteristics  are  common  to  several  varieties,  a  sharp  distinc- 
tion is  not  always  possible. 

I.    Starch  grains  simple,  bounded  by  curved  surfaces. 

A.  Disk-shaped  or  globular,  without  distinct  lamination. 

a.  Grains  mostly  lens-shaped,  large  and  many  small  sizes ;   few  transition 

forms:   Wheat,  rye,  barley  starch. 

b.  Grains  globular  with  nuclear  vacuole:    Peanut  starch. 

B.  Oval  and  elongated,  usually  with  nuclear  vacuole  and  laminated. 

1.  Concentric  nuclear  fissure  and  lamination. 

a.  Grains  bean  or  kidney  shaped,  nuclear  vacuole  fissured :  pea,  bean, 

vetch  starch. 

b.  Grains  irregularly  sinuate,  flask-shaped,  with  long,  concentric  nuclear 

fissure  and  indistinct  lamination :    Acorn  starch. 

2.  Eccentric  nuclear  vacuole  and  lamination. 

a.  Grains   large,   conchiform,   lamination    very   distinct,   eccentric:    Po- 

tato starch. 

b.  Grains  irregularly  sinuate,  lamination  and  nuclear  vacuole  eccentric : 

Horse-chestnut  starch. 


Fig.  70.     Disk-shaped  starch. 


Fig.  71.    Corn  cockle  starch. 


Grains  simple  or  compound.     Individual  grains   (broken)   polyhedral,  entirely 
or  partly  bounded  by  plane  surfaces. 

1.  Composed  of  simple  small  grains  and  of  compound  large  spheroidal  grains 

and  parts  of  grains: 

a.  Regular  and  with  sharp  edges,  often  with  nuclear  vacuole,  polyhedral : 

Rice  starch. 

b.  Edges  rounded,  no  nuclear  vacuole,  many  sliapcs :    Oat  starch. 

2.  Composed  of  simple  and  of  large  irregular  compound  grains : 

a.    Sharply  defined   borders,   rounded  or   polyhedral,   nuclear   vacuole   fis- 
sured :    Corn  starch. 


EXAMINATION  FOR  SHELLS,  HULLS,  SKINS,  ETC.  141 

b.  Grains  small  with  sharp  edges,  nucleus  large :    Millet  starch. 

c.  Grains  rounded,  polyhedral,  occasionally  gnarled,  in  columnar  bundles, 

nucleus  large:    Buckwheat  starch. 
III.    Grains  very  small,  punctiform  in  appearance  under  200  diameters  magnifica- 
tion:   Lolium  tevmlentum,  corn  cockle,  chenopodium,  notchweed  and  sev- 
eral other  weed  starch  grains. 

The  starch  grains  of  rye,  wheat  and  barley  are  lenticular  in  form,  sometimes 
concentrically  laminated,  with  central  nucleus  or  nuclear  fissure.  The  results  ob- 
tained from  microscopical  examination  are  not  infallible.  However,  meal  gruel  (1 
to  50)  well  stirred  and  carefully  heated  to  62.5°  C.  (144.5°  F.),  then  rapidly  cooled 
and  subjected  to  examination  will  show  the  wheat  starch  almost  wholly  intact  (Fig. 
73),  while  rye  starch  grains  will  be  swollen  and  mostly  ruptured  (Fig.  72).  Barley 
starch  exhibits  a  greater  variety  of  form  and  more  irregularity. 

The  starch  grains  of  corn  cockle  (Fig.  71)  are  flask  or  spindle  shaped.  Upon  the 
exertion  of  pressure  they  break  up  into  innumerable  polyhedral  granules  with 
rounded  edges  and  1  micron  diameter. 


©  o 


Fig.  72.    Rye   flour  heated  at   62.5°C.  (144.S°F.)         Fig.  73.    Wheat  flour  heated  at  62. 5°C.(144.5°F.) 

Examination  of   By-Products   Containing    Shells,   Hulls,    Skins,   etc. 

The  contents  of  4he  various  screens  are  spread  out  upon  a  sheet  of  white  or 
black  paper.  Particles  of  similar  appearance  are  picked  out  with  the  aid  of  fine 
forceps  and  laid  aside  for  identification.  Those  that  can  not  be  identified  with 
the  naked  eye  or  with  the  aid  of  a  magnifying  glass  are  cleared  by  boiling  for  a 
moment  in  a  1  to  2  percent  solution  of  potash,  strained  through  fine  gauze,  washed, 
then  similarly  boiled  in  equal  parts  of  glycerin  and  acetic  acid,  filtered  and  washed. 
The  residue  is  examined,  with  the  aid  of  a  teasing  needle,  under  the  microscope, 
using  150  to  300  magnifying  power.  The  material  may  also  be  successfully  cleared 
by  light  boiling  for  30  minutes  in  1.25  percent  sulphuric  acid  in  a  flask  with  return 
condenser.  The  product  is  washed,  filtered,  and  the  residue  boiled  for  30  minutes  in 
1.25  percent  potash  solution  in  a  similarly  equipped  flask,  then  filtered,  washed  and 
subjected  to  examination.  Various  species  of  weed  seeds  are  easily  recognized  by 
the  dark  color  of  their  skins  or  membranes. 

In  the  following  paragraphs  a  few  of  the  most  important  feeding  stuff's  and  their 
most  common  and  dangerous  adulterations  are  briefly  mentioned  and  illustrated.  For 
further  and  more  detailed  information  and  instruction  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
works  already  quoted  under  1,  2  and  3.  When  doubts  arise  as  to  the  exact  nature 
of  certain  substances,  they  may  be  compared  with  corresponding  material  of  known 
origin. 

In  determining  the  character  of  these  foreign  substances  due  consideration  must 
be  given  to  the  question  of  whether  they  are  naturally  or  accidentally  present  (e.  g., 
moderate  amounts  of  weed  seeds)  or  whether  they  were  added  with  the  intention  to 
defraud,  or  adulterate.  In  the  former  instance,  when  these  substances  are  present  in 
limited  amounts,  and  not  of  a  toxic  nature,  no  special  objection  can  be  made. 
Poisonous  substances  or  intentional  adulterations  are  another  matter. 


142 


THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


Meals  and  Brans  of  Rye,  Wheat,  Barley,  Corn  and  Oats 

According  to  their  origin  these  show — 

1.  The  more  or  less  characteristic  starch  grains. 

2.  Characteristics  brought  out  by  Vogl's  reagent   (not  applicable  to  rye). 

3.  When  sifted  through  Nobbe's  sieves,  bran  particles,  etc.,  should  not  appear 
in  any  considerable  amount. 

In  the  case  of  brans  which  may  contain  a  few  traces  of  the  glumes  (chaff)  of  the 
species  of  grain  in  question  (Figs.  74  and  75),  those  of  other  varieties,  or  dark- 
colored,  woody  particles,  should  not  be  present. 

4.  Schafifnit's  method  (p.  137)  should  not  reveal  the  presence  of  sand,  mineral 
matter,  hairs,  etc. 

5.  Shells,  hulls,  and  other  woody  parts  should  not  be  present.  For  the  detection 
of  these  substances  the  contents  of  the  coarser  sieves  or,  better,  the  whole  meal, 
should  be  used.  The  examination  is  conducted  according  to  instructions  given 
under  "Examination  of   By-products   Containing   Shells,   Hulls,   Skins,   etc." 


o.®fb  " 


Fig.  74.  Rye.  (After  Wittmack.) 
Explanation:  h  and  h',  Hairs;  1,  longitudinal. 


Fig.  75.  Wiieat. 


(After  Wittmack.) 


transverse  cells;  s,  tubular  cells  of  the  seed  coats; 
/.pigment  layer  of  the  seed  coat;  fe,  aleurone  layer;  jt,  starch  grains;  st',  the 
same   converted   into   paste   at   62.5°C.    (144. 5°F.). 


The  glumes  (chaff)  of  the  cereals  are  either  bright  or  dull  in  appearance,  smooth 
or  carinated,  and  consist  chiefly  of  long  bast  fibers  and  woody  or  silicified,  closely 
packed  cells  (Fig.  76). 

6.  Test  for  ergot.  Vogl's  method  does  not  suffice  for  this.  For  the  chemical 
determination  of  ergot,  make  an  emulsion  of  a  small  quantity  of  the  suspected 
feeding  stuff  with  a  60  percent  solution  of  chloral  hydrate,  allow  to  settle  for  a 
few  minutes  and  filter.  The  filtrate,  if  ergot  is  present,  has  a  bright  cherry  red 
color.  A  drop  allowed  to  dry  on  filter  paper  leaves  a  reddish  spot  which,  when 
treated  with  alcohol-ammonia,  becomes  a  dirty  violet.  The  balance  of  the  solu- 
tion is  agitated  with  ether.  After  settling,  the  supernatant  ether  has  a  pink  color 
while  the  sediment  is  colorless.  Microscopic  examination  is  unreliable  unless  char- 
acteristic pieces  of  ergot  are  accidentally  met  with.  In  a  shake  mixture  the  ergot 
and  bran  particles  float  on  the  surface  after  the  mixture  has  been  allowed  to  stand 
a  while.  Centrifuging  has  the  same  effect.  The  floating  particles  are  cleared  by 
boiling  in  1  to  2  percent  hydrochloric  acid  solution  and  then  treated  with  chloral 
hydrate,  or  the  particles,  thus  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  are  stained  with 
dimcnthylamidoazobenzol,  thionin  and  safranin.  The  ergot  tissues  stain  yellow,  other 
tissues  blue,  violet  or  variegated,  and  may  thus  readily  be  recognized  under  low 
magnifying  power. 


MEALS,  BRANS,  ETC. 


143 


As  to  the  microscopic  characteristics  of  ergot,  see  Klimmer,  Hygiene.  It  is  easily 
distinguished  from  the  grain  seed  coats,  etc.,  even  when  unstained. 

In  addition  to  the  microscopical  examination,  spectroscopic  examination  should 
be  resorted  to  if  necessary. 

Macerate  10  grams  of  meal  for  5  to  6  hours  in  sulphuric  acid-alcohol  (10  drops 
of  a  20  percent  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  in  20  grams  of  95  percent  alcohol)  and 
filter.  Alkalize  the  filtrate  with  ammonia,  filter  and  examine  with  spectroscope. 
Ergot  shows  two  absorption  bands  in  the  green  (90  to  99  and  112  to  122)  and  a 
blue  band  (145,  when  the  sodium  D-line  is  at  70  and  the  Potash  a  on  26  and  potash  b 
on  219). 

7.  Very  frequently  the  spores  of  smut,  especially  Tilletia  caries,  occur  in  wheat 
and  mixed  brans,  rarely  in  others.  To  examine,  sift  the  bran  or  meal  with  a  %  mm. 
(not  more  than  H  mm.)  mesh. 


Fig.  76.    Rice.    Cells  of  the  external  covering  of  the  glumes. 


A,  Outer  seed  coat  cells  treated  with  caustic  potash;  A',  the  same  treated  with   water;  t,  protuber- 
ances on  same;  r,  round  cell,  with  hair,  h;  F,  cells  of  the  subjacent  fibrous  tissue.  (After  Boehmer.) 


A  portion  of  the  sifted  material  is  removed  with  the  tip  of  a  knife  blade,  moistened 
with  water  and  examined  under  a  magnifying  powder  of  50  diameters  with  open 
diaphragm.  If  the  material  is  previously  boiled  in  dilute  caustic  soda  solution,  the 
smut  spores  become  more  distinctly  visible.  If  a  slide,  made  from  the  sifted  ma- 
terial mixed  with  water,  but  otherwise  untreated,  and  the  material  spread  just 
sufficiently  thin  to  permit  examination,  shows  20  smut  spores  in  a  microscopic  field, 
the  material  is  considered  of  inferior  grade   (see  illustration  in  Klimmer,  Hygiene). 

8.    Testing  for  evidence  of  spoiling. 

In  the  examination  of  vegetable  oil  by-products,  use  is  made  of  the  iodin-starch 
reaction  (p.  134).  After  proper  preparation  of  the  material,  search  is  made  for  seed 
shells,  hulls,  etc.  The  fruit  hulls  and  seed  coats  of  oil  seeds  frequently  contain 
thick-walled  bast  and  stone  cells,  deposits  of  tannic  acid  and  characteristic  pig- 
ments. If  ricin  poisoning  is  suspected,  search  is  made  for  traces  of  castor  oil  beans 
(p.  147). 


144 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


Further  hints  for  the  examination  of  oil  cakes  and  oil  meals  have  already  been 
given  in  this  chapter  and  with  the  description  of  the  feeding  stuffs  under  consid- 
eration. For  more  minute  details  reference  should  be  made  to  special  literature  on 
the  subject,  especially  Koenig.i^ 


Fig.  77.    Green  pea.    1,  Palisade  cells;  2,  colum-  Fig.  78.     Ivory   nut,  cross   section. 

nar  cells;  3  and  4,  parenchyma.  S,   Seed  coat;  E,  endosperm.    (After  Moeller.) 


Fig.  79.    Sawdust  of  Conifer. 


t,  Tracheid;  p,  wood  parenchyma;  m,   (above),  medullary  rays  of  the  fir;  m,    (below),  medullary 
rays  of  the  pine.     (X  160.)      (After  Moeller.) 

The  tough  seed  coats  of  the  Leguminosse  are  composed  of  very  long  and  to  some 
extent  thick-walled  palisade  cells  containing  tannin  and  covered  on  the  outside  with 
a  layer  of  cuticle  (Fig.  77).  The  chief  adulterants  of  meals,  brans,  oil  cakes,  etc., 
consist  of  rice  chaff,  fruit-stone  refuse,  sawdust,  weed  seeds,  screenings  and  castor 
oil  beans. 


iSKoenig,  Untersuchung  landwirtschaftlicher  und  gewerblich  wichtiger  Stoffe. 
lin,  1911. 


P.   Parey,   Ber- 


MEALS,  BRANS,  ETC. 


145 


The  highly  silicified  glumes  of  the  chaflf  of  rice  have  no  feed  vahie  whatever 
but  rather  interfere  with  the  digestibility  of  other  feeding  material.  Rice  glumes 
may  be  recognized  by  the  cells  of  their  cuticle,  with  their  long,  firmly  interlocking, 
jagged  projections  (Fig.  76).  Between  the  latter  cells  are  found  simple  round 
cells  which  come  to  view  after  treatment  with  caustic  solutions  (p.  141). 

The  refuse  of  button  manufacture  from  the  ivory  nut,  Phytelephas  macrocarpa, 
has  no  feeding  value.  The  comparatively  thin  seed  coat  consists  of  sclerenchymat- 
ous  cells,  prominent  among  which  are  the  outer  spindle-shaped  cells.  Beneath  the 
seed  coat  lies  the  well-developed  endosperm  (£).  It  consists  of  cells  with  ex- 
ceptionally thick  walls  with  peculiar  buttonlike  pores  at  the  base. 


Fig.  81.    Corn  cockle  seeds. 
a,  Natural  size;  b,  X  12. 


Fig.  80.    Corn  cockle. 
1,  Flower  stem;  2,  longitudinal  section  of  flower; 
3,  longitudinal  section  of  ovary  with  stig- 
ma; 4,  cross  section  of  flower. 


Sawdust  Stains  yellow  upon  addition  of  caustic  potash  solution  and  is  easily 
recognized  with  the  unaided  eye  or  by  means  of  low  magnifying  power.  In  sawdust 
from  Coniferae  the  microscope  reveals  chiefly  the  characteristic  tracheids  and  medul- 
lary ray  cells.  Parenchymous  cells,  except  in  the  fir  {Abies,  y^g.  79)  are  less 
frequently  met  with.     In  sawdust  from  deciduous  trees  libriform  tissues  predominate. 

Feed  meals  and  brans  are  frequently  adulterated  with  screenings.  The  latter 
consist  of  all  kinds  of  weed  seeds,  broken  grains  of  the  cereals,  ergot,  spores  of 
fungi,  chaff,  maggots,  beetles,  mouse  excrement,  particles  of  earth,  sweepings,  etc. 

Weed  seeds  are  usually  easily  recognized  by  their  brown,  blackish  and  often 
rough  seed  coats.  They  occur  in  the  screenings  and  are  often  ground  up  and  mixed 
with  meals  but  chiefly  with  bran. 


146 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


According  to  resolutions  of  the  Association  of  German  Agricultural  Experiment 
Stations,  bran,  and  above  all,  meal  or  flour,  must  be  the  product  of  previously 
thoroughly  cleaned  grain.  The  term  "bran"  can  not  properly  be  applied  to  ground 
hulls,  pods,  chaffs,  etc.,  like  ground  peanut  shells,  millet  hulls,  rice  chaff,  oat  hulls, 
etc.  The  terms  grout  or  groats  (German  Schrot)  are  applied  to  coarsely  ground 
whole  grain  with  no  parts  thereof  removed  nor  any  foreign  material  added. 

Of  the  numerous  weed  seeds  mention  is  here  made  merely  of  the  poisonous  corn 
cockle,  vetches,  the  various  species  of  Polygonum  or  knotgrass,  cow  wheat,  Atriplcx 
or  notchweed,  corn  crowfoot  (Ranunculus  arvensis),  poisonous  darnel  and  other 
grass  seeds,  field  mustard,  charlock,   corn  flower,  etc. 

The  seeds  of  corn  cockle  when  viewed  with  the  unaided  eye  appear  as  roundish, 
reniform,  blackish  structures  about  2  mm.  in  diameter    (Fig.  81,  a).     Under   low 


g.  82.     Corn  cockle.    1,  Outer  seed  coat;   A   and   A',  protuberances;   a,  warty  excrescence 


same;  b,  2,  and  3,  strata  of  parenchyma;  .;,  starch  cells;  5,  starch  grains  in  cross  section; 
B,    tangential   section,   figures   as   preceding.      (X  200.)      (After  Boehmer.) 


magnifying  power  the  spirally  arranged  protuberances  can  be  recognized.  When 
cleared  material  (p.  143)  is  viewed  under  the  microscope  the  characteristic  cells 
of  the  seed  coat  can  be  recognized  (Fig.  82).  The  starch  grains  have  the  char- 
acteristics mentioned  on  page  141.  In  searching  for  the  latter  the  meal,  bran,  etc., 
under  examination  should  be  moistened  with  water  only,  and  not  brought  in  con- 
tact with  or  boiled  in  acids  or  caustic  solutions. 

In  regard  to  Vogl's  reaction  see  page  133;  hemolysis,  page  135.  The  saponin 
reaction  is  also  sometimes  used  to  detect  the  presence  of  corn  cockle  seed.  Extract 
one  part  of  meal  with  two  parts  of  85  per  cent  hot  alcohol,  filter  while  still  hot,  and 
when  cool  treat  with  absolute  alcohol.  Saponin  precipitates  when  cold.  It  may  be 
purified  by  redissolving  in  alcohol  and  precipitating  in  absolute  alcohol.  Identifica- 
tion: Effervescence  in  water  and  reddish  violet  color  when  treated  with  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid. 


BACTERIOLOGICAL  EXAMINATION 


147 


Castor  beans  are  not  infrequently  used  as  adulterants  of  oil  meals,  peanut  meal, 
etc.,  especially  those  of  South  Russian  origin.  The  presence  of  ricin  (a  toxin) 
gives  them  their  poisonous  character  (gastroenteritis,  nephritis,  agalactia,  fainting, 
spasms,  death). 

Microscopically  their  thick,  slivery,  sharp-edged  and  longitudinally  marbled  skins 
are  characteristic.  Macerated  material  shows  the  radially  arranged  palisade  cells 
(Fig.  82)  and  the  parenchyma  with  its  varied  spiral  tubes  (Fig.  83). 

The  decorticated  seeds  have  little  that  is  characteristic  to  distinguish  them 
microscopically.  Their  presence  is  determined  by  the  complement  fixation  test 
(p.  134). 

4.    Bacteriological  Examination 

The  spoiling  or  decomposition  of  air-dry  feeding  stuffs  (meals,  brans,  oil  cakes, 
etc.)   is  caused  chiefly  by  molds. 


Fig.  83.     Castor   bean   seed. 

Parenchyma  of  the  seed  after  treatment 

with  ether  and  alcohol. 

a,  Spiral  tube   of  tire  seed  coat. 


Fig.  84.    Castor  bean  seed.    Elongated  cells  of 
seed  coat  after  treatment  with  ether  and  caus- 
tic potash.    (X  300.)    (After  Koenig.) 


For  the  detection  of  their  presence  we  resort  to — 

1.  Odor.    Musty,  moldy,  sour  or  rancid  odors  indicate  the  presence  of  mold  fungi. 

2.  Cultural  methods.  For  this  purpose  use  covered  Petri  dishes  containing  a 
layer  of  sterilized  sand  2  to  5  mm.  in  thickness.  Two  grams  of  the  feeding  stuff 
to  be  examined  are  spread  over  the  sand  with  the  aid  of  a  sterilized  brush  and 
moistened  with  water  which  has  been  slightly  acidulated  with  lactic  acid.  Some  of 
these  dishes  are  kept  at  a  temperature  of  37°  C.  (98.6°  F.).  and  others  at  ordinary 
room  temperature.  Good  feeding  stuffs  will  show  at  most  an  insignificant  moldiness 
after  24  hours  and  do  not  smell  putrid,  musty  nor  rancid. 

For  the  detection  of  mites  see  Klimmer,  Hygiene. 


.v^" 


Section  II 

Principles  of  Nutrition  and  Feeding 

A.     General  Matter 


The  character  of  feeding  influences  the  development,  serviceableness 
and  resisting  power  of  the  animal  body.  Insufficient  nutriment  prevents 
the  proper  development  of  the  organs  of  the  body.  Muscles  and  glands 
(udder)  lose  functioning  power  and  the  body  as  a  whole  becomes  stunted. 
A  poorly  nourished  body  is  more  susceptible  to  disease,  suffers  more 
from  the  effects  of  fevers  and  requires  a  longer  time  to  recuperate.  Dur- 
ing starvation  the  body  is  nourished  by  its  own  tissues,  particularly  the 
fat  (95  per  cent  may  be  consumed).  Muscles  and  glands  are  also  drawn 
upon  (40  to  50  per  cent) ;  the  bones  suffer  less  (12  per  cent),  and  the 
nervous  system  least  (2  to  3  per  cent).  Reduction  to  one-half  of  the 
body-weight  of  an  animal  in  good  condition  results  in  death.  Overfeed- 
ing should  also  be  avoided.  Excessive  amounts  of  feed  cannot  be  di- 
gested; they  decompose,  ferment,  and  may  give  rise  to  disturbance  of 
appetite,  gastrointestinal  catarrh,  overloading,  constipation,  colic,  etc. 

Feed  (nutriment)  is  composed  of  the  various  feeding  stuffs,  and  the 
latter,  on  their  part,  are  composed  of  nutrients. 

The  various  nutrients,  with  the  exception  of  water  and  common  salt, 
are  practically  never  ingested  separately,  that  is,  as  such,  but  in  combina- 
tion with  other  nutrients  and  indigestible  matter,  which  latter  serves 
chiefly  to  give  volume  or  bulk.  Nearly  all  feeding  stuffs  consist  of  mix- 
tures of  this  kind.  Only  a  few  feeding  stuffs,  however,  contain  the 
nutrient  elements  required  for  the  proper  nourishment  of  the  animal 
body,  in  mixtures  of  proper  proportion  (so-called  complete  feeding  stuffs, 
like  milk  for  sucklings  and  grass  for  herbivora).  As  a  rule,  a  mixture 
of  several  feeding  stuffs  is  required,  so  that  an  excess  of  a  certain  nutri- 
ent in  one  will  balance  a  deficiency  in  the  other,  and  vice  versa.  Feed- 
ing stuffs  which,  though  not  necessarily  constituting  complete  rations  in 
themselves,  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  ration,  are  referred  to  as 
basal  feeding  stuffs,  like  hay  for  herbivora  and  potatoes  for  swine.  Feed- 
ing stuffs  which,  owing  to  their  chemical  composition  or  other  character- 
istics, are  fed  in  smaller  quantities,  like  potatoes  for  horses,  chaff  and 
pods  for  swine,  are  referred  to  as  supplemental  feeding  stuffs.  Basal 
and  suplemetital  feeding  stuffs  should  not  be  confused  with  correctives 
or  by-feeds,  which  are  characterized  by  their  unbalanced  composition 
and  are  therefore  used  for  correcting  deficiencies  of  certain  nutrients. 
Correctives  frequently  have  dietetic  and  stimulating  effects  on  digestion 
(young  thistles  in  the  spring  of  the  year  for  horses)  or  specific  action  on 

148 


NUTRIENT  REQUIREMENTS  149 

the  secretory  function  of  the  milk  glands   (cottonseed  meal  for  cows), 
etc. 

The  term  concentrates  is  appUed  to  feeding  stuffs  rich  in  easily  diges- 
tible nutrients  and  containing  comparatively  little  indigestible  material  or 
water,  like  the  grains,  oil  cake,  malt  sprouts,  dried  brewers'  grains,  bran, 
feed  meals,  etc.  Feeding  stuffs  comparatively  poor  in  nutrients  but  con- 
taining large  quantities  of  indigestible  matter  like  crude  fiber  are  referred 
to  as  roughages,  like  straw  chaff,  hulls,  low-grade  hay,  etc.  Succulent 
and  fluid  feeding  stuffs  include  green  feed  (soiling),  silage,  root  crops 
and  tubers,  distillery  slops,  milk  and  creamery  by-products. 

The  animal  body  requires  water,  salts,  a  part  of  the  albumen  and  of  the  fat  (or 
of  the  carbohydrates)  for  tissue  building  and  for  tissue  repair.  These  substances 
are  therefore  referred  to  as  organic  substances.  The  substances  which,  in  the  course 
of  metabolism,  constitute  sources  of  heat  and  energy,  are  called  combustibles.  The 
chief  and  most  important  of  these  are  the  carbohydrates,  most  of  the  assimilated 
fat  and  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  albumen.  The  physiological  action  of 
nutrients  is  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  heat  produced  in  the  process  of  their 
combustion,!  minus  the  heat  units  that  are  lost  in  the  undigested  or  unassimilated 
products  of  excretion  (feces  and  urine).  The  action  of  the  organic  nutrients  may 
therefore  be  looked  upon  as  a  calorimetric  effect.  Numerous  determinations  have 
demonstrated  that  1  gram  of  albumen  develops  4.1  calories  in  combustion,  1  gram 
of  fat  9.3  calories,  and  1  gram  of  carbohydrates  4.1  calories.  The  different  com- 
bustibles may  replace  one  another,  or  be  substituted  for  one  another  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  heat  they  produce  in  combustion.  They  are  isodynamic  in  the 
same  proportion  (Rubner).  One  part  of  fat  corresponds  to  2.27  parts  of  carbo- 
hydrates or  albumen.  These  values,  expressed  in  terms  of  calories  are  referred  to 
as  fuel  value  or  energy  value.  This  unit  of  measurement  may  also  be  used  to  express 
the  requirements  of  animals  for  available  energy.  For  example,  an  ox  weighing 
1,200  pounds  requires  for  its  maintenance  a  daily  supply  of  12,800  calories. 

If  an  animal  is  supplied  with  just  sufficient  nutrient  elements  in  its 
feed  so  that  it  will  neither  gain  nor  lose  weight,  the  ration  is  referred  to 
as  a  maintenance  ration.  On  the  other  hand,  if  in  addition  to  this  an 
excess  of  nutrients  is  supplied  which  goes  to  form  muscle,  fat,  milk, 
wool,  or  useful  work,  the  entire  amount  of  feed  supplied  is  referred  to 
as  a  productive  ration. 

In  feeding  for  production  we  might  compare  an  animal  with  an  engine 
or  a  machine  which  converts  coarse  feed  products  of  low  value  (grass, 
hay,  beets,  etc.)  into  refined  food  products  of  high  value  (meat,  fat, 
milk,  etc.),  or  into  work,  or  valuable  raw  material  (wool,  leather,  horn, 
etc)  Successful  feeding  operations  must  therefore  be  governed  and 
guided  by  the  principle  of  producing  the  greatest  possible  results  with 
the  least  possible  expense. 

In  order  to  determine  with  scientific  exactness  the  amount  and  chemical  composi- 
tion of  feed  required  for  an  animal  under  different  conditions  it  is  necessary  to 
determine  what  part  of  the  nutrient  elements  are  converted  into  tissue  and  energy. 
This  is  computed  on  the  basis  of  the  amount  and  character  of  the  feed  consumed 
and  of  the  products  of  excretion  found  in  the  feces  and  urine  or  thrown  off  by  the 
lungs  and  the  skin.    As  a  rule  these  calculations  are  based  on  the  amount  of  nitrogen 

IThe  fuel  value  of  a  given  feed  is  determined  by  burning  a  weighed  amount  of  the  same  in  a 
bomb-like  apparatus  (calorimeter)  filled  with  condensed  oxygen.  The  calorimeter  is  submersed  in 
a  measured  quantity  of  water  and  the  gain  in  temperature  of  the  latter,  measured  with  a  ther- 
mometer, gives  the  result  in  terms  of  calories.  For  more  detailed  information  see  Berthelot, 
Praktische  Anleitung  zur  Ausfuehrung  thermochemischer  Messungen,  1893;  O.  Kellner,  Landw, 
Versuchsstationen   1896,  vol.  217,  p.  293,  etc. 


150  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

and  carbon  consumed,  although  sometimes  they  are  based  on  the  amount  of  energy 
conversion.  For  technical  details  the  reader  is  referred  to  Kellner,  Die  Ernaehrung 
der  Landwirtschaftlichen  Nutztiere  (The  Nutrition  of  Domestic  Animals). 

The  energy  contained  in  the  nutrients  which  animals  consume  is  used  up  in  part 
by  the  work  connected  with  the  process  of  digestion  (mastication,  mechanical  and 
secretory  functions  of  the  digestive  organs,  etc.),  by  processes  of  decomposition  of 
various  kinds,  mechanical  work  connected  with  absorption,  circulation  and  assimila- 
tion, and  finally  converted  into  heat.  The  experiments  of  Rubner  have  shown  to 
what  extent  the  various  nutrients  are  able  to  provide  this  energy.  He  found,  for 
instance,  that  a  dog,  in  order  to  maintain  its  energy  equilibrium,  with  the  surround- 
ing air  at  a  temperature  at  33°  C.  (91.4°  F.),  must  consume  140.2  calories  in  tfie 
form  of  pure  meat,  or  114.5  calories  in  the  form  of  fat,  or  106.4  calories  in  the 
form  of  cane  sugar,  for  each  100  calories  of  heat  given  off.  Thus  the  net  energy 
value  of  meat  is  only  71.3  per  cent  of  its  total  energy  value,  that  of  fat  87.3  per  cent 
and  that  of  cane  sugar  94  per  cent.  The  difference  is  converted  into  heat  and  might 
be  looked  upon  as  loss. 

The  act  of  feeding  in  itself  is  thus  always  attended  with  heat  production.  The 
latter  process  is  always  materially  influenced  by  the  physical  character  and  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  feed.  For  example,  roughage  like  straw  requires  more 
mechanical  work  in  its  mastication  and  its  conveyance  along  the  course  of  the  ali- 
mentary tract  than  gruel.  According  to  Zuntz  and  Hagemann,  the  mechanical  work 
required  by  the  horse  to  masticate  1  kg.  of  meadow  hay  amounts  to  167.4  calories, 
1  kg.  of  a  mixture  of  oats  and  chaffed  straw  (1:6)  requires  64.2  calories,  1  kg. 
of  a  mixture  of  corn  and  chaffed  straw  (1 :6)  35.7  calories,  and  1  kg.  green  alfalfa 
30.4  calories.  The  work  required  to  digest  feeding  stuffs  free  or  nearly  free  from 
crude  fiber,  like  meat,  rice  and  bread,  is  about  9  per  cent  of  their  total  energy  value. 
The  total  energy  value  of  1  kg.  of  oats  is  2,622  calories,  but  the  available  useful  or 
net  energy,  which  remains  after  deducting  the  above  mentioned  losses  which  occur 
in  the  process  of  digestion,  is  only  2,121  calories.  That  of  1  kg.  of  meadow  hay 
(total  1,580)  is  only  699;  that  of  1  kg.  of  wheat  straw  (total  705  calories)  requires 
1,165  calories  for  the  work  of  digestion,  etc.,  or  460  calories  more  than  it  actually 
contains.  The  amount  of  heat  produced  in  the  digestion  of  a  liberal  "production" 
ration  (for  fat  or  milk  production)  may  be  so  great  that  the  conversion  of  the 
available  calories  into  tissue  or  energy  becomes  independent  of  the  surrounding 
temperature  (as  in  ruminants,  for  example).  On  the  other  hand,  the  amount  of 
heat  produced  in  this  manner  in  swine,  which  subsist  on  milk,  tubers,  root  crops  and 
grain,  etc.,  is  much  less,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  feed  consumed.  In  swine  the 
surrounding  temperature  exercises  a  comparatively  great  influence  on  the  conversion 
of  the  food  elements  into  tissue  and  energy.  The  effect  of  the  temperature  of  the 
surrounding  atmosphere  is  also  less  in  herbivora  kept  on  maintenance  rations  con- 
sisting of  roughage  like  hay  and  straw  that  require  a  great  amount  of  mechanical 
work  in  their  digestion;  in  other  words,  feeds  that  furnish  a  large  amount  of 
thermal  energy.  But  even  under  such  conditions  low  external  temperatures  always 
call  for  an  increased  food  supply. 

I.    Nutrient  Requirements 
1.    Assimilation  and  Utilization 

Digestion  and  assimilation  (or  metabolism)  of  feed  are  influenced  by 
species,  breed,  individuality,  exercise,  etc. 

Feeding  stuffs  rich  in  crude  fiber  are  digested  and  utilized  by  cattle  to 
better  advantage  than  by  any  other  farm  animals.  Sheep  come  next  in 
this  respect,  followed  by  horses  and  swine  in  the  order  named. 

In  regard  to  the  utilization  of  crude  protein  there  is  no  difference  be- 
tween cattle  and  sheep  and  only  a  slight  one  in  favor  of  the  horse.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract,  but  there  is  a  more  marked 
difference  in  the  abiHty  of  the  different  species  of  farm  animals  to  digest 
and  utiHze  the  crude  fat.  Roughage  like  wheat  chaff  or  brewers'  grains 
and  distillery  slops  are  utilized  much  less  perfectly  by   swine  than  by 


ORGANIC  NUTRIENTS  151 

herbivora.  There  is  more  uniformity  in  this  respect  with  regard  to  oil 
cake  and  the  grains.  But  the  digested  portions  in  this  instance  produce  a 
greater  gain  in  swine  than  in  ruminants.  The  difference,  according  to 
Fingerling,  amounts  to  30  per  cent  if  the  nutrients  are  administered  in 
easily  digestible  form. 

According  to  Kellner,  and  contrary  to  general  belief,  age  and  breed 
do  not  influence  digestibility.  Individual  animals,  however,  may  show 
a  difference  of  3  or  4  per  cent  in  this  respect. 

The  influence  of  exercise  has  at  various  times  been  the  subject  of  study 
and  investigation.  The  results  have  shown  that  moderate  exercise  does 
not  affect  digestion  unfavorably  (this  does  not  take  into  detailed  consid- 
eration the  effect  of  exercise  upon  the  digestive  processes  in  the  different 
portions  of  the  digestive  tract).  Grandeau  and  Leclerc  found,  however, 
that  active  work,  in  a  walk  or  trot,  has  an  unfavorable  influence  upon 
protein  digestion. 

Excessive  additions  of  carbohydrates  to  the  ration  may,  under  certain 
conditions,  retard  digestion.  The  same  is  true  of  the  fats  when  admin- 
istered in  bulk  but  not  when  given  in  a  finely  divided  state.  Increase  of 
the  proteids  favors  digestion.  The  relative  proportions  of  the  nutrients 
to  insure  digestion  of  all  feeding  stuffs,  should  not  exceed  1  to  10  per 
cattle,  nor  1  to  12  for  swine.  Cattle  powders,  milk  powders,  fattening 
powders,  appetizer  powders,  etc.,  have  no  favorable  effect  upon  digestion 
in  otherwise  healthy  animals. 

2.    Organic  Nutrients 

The  nutrient  requirements  vary  according  to  species,  breed,  variety, 
age,  purpose,  etc.  The  live  weight  of  the  animal  should  constitute  the 
basis  of  feed  standardization  and  should  be  determined  by  frequently  re- 
peated weighings  before  feeding  and  always  at  the  same  hour  of  the  day. 

In  the  first  place  all  animals  require  a  certain  amount  of  digestible 
albumen  or  protein.  While  albumen  or  protein  may  be  substituted  to  a 
certain  extent  for  the  fat  and  carbohydrates  of  a  ration,  it  can  not  be  re- 
placed by  the  latter.  The  comparatively  high  price  of  protein  is  at  the 
bottom  of  the  custom  usually  followed  in  preparing  rations  with  the 
minimum  protein  content.  And  yet  agricultural  interests  in  particular 
have  frequently  pointed  out  that  it  is  better  to  feed  an  excess  of  protein 
than  an  excess  of  carbohydrates,  on  the  economic  ground  that  it  results 
in  a  richer  manure ! 

After  completed  development  of  all  the  organs,  the  requirements  for 
proteids,  in  addition  to  the  minimum  for  the  support  of  life,  are  only 
what  is  required  for  the  complete  digestion  of  the  food.  Muscular 
energy  and  fat  can  be  produced,  or  furnished,  as  a  rule  by  the  carbo- 
hydrates and  the  fat.  Accordingly  the  requirements  for  protein  are  not 
high.  In  general,  the  need  of  mature  animals  is  supplied  by  1  pound  of 
digestible  protein  for  every  8  or  10  pounds  of  digestible  nitrogen-free 
extract  (carbohydrates  plus  fat  X  2.2). 


152  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

With  reference  to  the  digestibility  and  iitiHzation  of  the  nitrogenous 
compounds  which  are  not  albumens,  see  page  8  and  following  pages. 
With  reference  to  vitamins  see  page  7. 

The  fats  and  the  carbohydrates  may  replace  each  other.  One  part  of 
digestible  fat  corresponds  to  about  2.2  parts  of  digestible  carbohydrates. 
For  practical  reasons  it  is  not  advisable  to  feed  mature  herbivora  daily 
more  than  1  pound  of  fat  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight.  Larger  quanti- 
ties are  liable  to  cause  digestive  disturbances  or  to  impair  the  appetite. 
On  the  other  hand,  young  growing  animals  can  digest,  and  actually  re- 
quire, considerably  more  fat.  In  general,  fat  is  easily  digested.  Fats  of 
low  melting  point  (rape,  linseed  and  poppy  seed  oil)  are  more  easily 
digested  than  fats  with  a  high  melting  point. 

In  regard  to  digestibility  of  crude  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract  see 
page  11  and  following  pages. 

The  proteids,  carbohydrates  and  fats  may  all  form  fat  tissue.  The 
question  of  fat  formation  from  the  proteids  has  long  been  a  subject  of 
dispute  but  it  is  now  considered  possible.  This  is  a  matter  of  little  eco- 
nomic importance,  however,  (cf.  p.  150  and  reference  above). 

According  to  investigations  of  Kellner,  nitrogenous  substances  not  of 
an  albuminous  nature  (like  asparagin  in  particular)  take  no  part  in  fat 
formation  in  the  animal  body. 

The  formation  of  fat  in  the  animal  body  from  nutrient  fat  of  either 
vegetable  or  animal  origin  has  been  definitely  demonstrated  by  numerous 
experiments.  Even  such  fats  as  do  not  normally  occur  in  certain  species 
of  animals,  like  rape  oil,  sheep  tallow  (in  dogs)  and  iodin  fat,  are  de- 
posited in  the  animal  tissues  without  material  chemical  changes  and  pro- 
vided they  consist  of  palmatin,  stearin  and  olein,  they  are  also  excreted 
with  the  milk.  These  facts  are  of  practical  importance  because  they  en- 
able us  to  influence  or  control  in  one  way  or  another  the  character  (melt- 
ing point,  etc.)  of  the  body  fat  as  well  as  the  fat  secreted  with  the  milk, 
by  feeding  liberal  quantities  of  nutrient  fat  (oil  cake,  com,  rice  feed 
meal,  etc).  However,  the  nutrient  fat  is  secreted  in  the  milk,  or  with 
the  milk,  to  a  limited  extent  only,  as  will  be  explained  more  in  detail  in 
the  chapter  on  feeding  dairy  animals.  Sunflower  seed  cake,  corn  germs 
and  tankage  fed  to  sheep  produce  a  soft,  fatty  tallow.  Rapeseed  cake 
with  bran  produce  tallow  of  medium  consistency,  while  peanut  cake  with 
coarsely  ground  barley,  palmseed  cake,  as  well  as  cottonseed  meal,  pro- 
duce a  hard,  dry  crumbly  tallow.  The  following  feeds  for  swine  produce 
bacon  of  quality  indicated  (1  and  2  indicate  good  quality,  3  somewhat 
soft  consistency,  4  to  5  poor  quality):  Grain,  1.5;  barley,  1.4;  corn, 
2.7;  feed  beets,  1.7;  carrots,  1.5;  turnips.  1.6;  wheat  bran,  2.8;  sun- 
flower seed  cake,  3.4;  two-thirds  grain  plus  one-third  palmseed  cake, 
1.0.  Notwithstanding  that  under  ordinaiy  conditions  the  body  fat  of 
each  species  of  animal  still  possesses  its  peculiar  characteristic,  this  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  ordinarily  there  is  always  a  deficiency  of  fat  nutri- 


FAT  FORMATION  FROM  CARBOHYDRATES  153 

ents  and  the  body  fat  is  produced  chiefly  through  cell  activity  from  carbo- 
hydrates and  proteids. 

According  to  Rubner,  87  per  cent  of  the  digested  fat  in  carnivora  is 
deposited  in  the  tissues.  In  herbivora,  in  which  more  extensive  bacterial 
changes  occur  in  the  digestive  tract,  the  amount  is  less  (Kellner).  For 
oil  emulsions  it  is  64.4  per  cent,  for  the  fats  contained  in  roughages 
47.4  per  cent,  for  the  fats  in  the  grains  and  the  seeds  of  the  legumes 
and  their  by-products  52.6  per  cent.  Kellner  is  of  the  opinion  that  the 
last  percentage  would  be  applicable  to  the  total  fat  content  of  the  usual 
feed  mixtures. 

Under  ordinar}^  conditions  the  main  source  of  the  body  fat  in  our  farm 
animals  is  to  be  found  in  the  carbohydrates.  Fat  formation  from  the 
carbohydrates  is  not  affected  by  the  nutrient  ratio,  even  within  wide 
limits  (1:2.4  to  1:14).  According  to  Kellner,  1  kg.  of  digested  starch 
can  form  248  gm.  (56.4  per  cent  of  its  total  calories),  crude  fiber  253 
gm.  (57.0  per  cent),  cane  sugar  188  gm.  (46.2  per  cent),  body  fat  in 
the  mature  ox.  The  rest  is  used  up  in  the  work  of  assimilation  and  in 
the  fermentation  and  decomposition  processes  of  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tine. In  this  respect  swine  utilize  the  digestible  carbohydrates,  fats  and 
albuminous  substances  to  the  extent  of  20  to  25  per  cent  more  than 
ruminants  (no  decomposition  in  the  fore  stomachs). 

The  pentosans  are  hardly  inferior  to  the  carbohydrates  as  fat  pro- 
ducers. On  the  other  hand,  the  organic  acids  take  no  part  in  fat  forma- 
tion. With  reference  to  conditions  obtaining  in  the  secretion  of  milk, 
see  chapter  on  feeding  dairy  animals. 

While  all  three  of  the  principal  nutrients  are  concerned  in  the  forma- 
tion of  fat,  fcsh  is  formed  by  the  proteids  exclusively. 

A  material  increase  of  body  protein  (excepting  nitrogenous  products 
in  the  form  of  milk,  wool  and  fetal  structures)  does  not  take  place  in 
mature  animals.  But  such  an  increase  is  very  great  in  suckling  calves. 
According  to  Soxhlet,  the  latter  utilize  on  an  average  72  per  cent  of  the 
digestible  proteins  in  milk  in  the  building  of  fleshy  tissue.  As  age  ad- 
vances this  percentage  gradually  decreases  until  it  practically  reaches 
the  zero  mark  in  mature  animals.  In  the  latter  the  muscle  fibers  no 
longer  increase  in  number,  and  an  increase  in  their  size  is  possible  in  a 
limited  way  only.  Accordingly,  this  question  does  not  concern  us  in 
the  fattening  of  mature  animals  in  an  average  condition  of  flesh.  In  such 
animals  the  chief  end  sought  is  fat  production. 

Above  everything  else,  the  carbohydrates  of  the  feed  and  the  gly- 
cogen stored  up  in  the  body  tissues  are  the  chief  sources  of  muscular 
energy.  Proteins  or  albumen  are  required  merely  to  the  extent  that 
they  are  necessary  for  repairing  the  wasted  muscle  substance,  which 
is  the  same  at  rest  as  it  is  during  or  after  exercise.  The  body  fat  is  not 
utilized  in  the  production  of  muscular  energy  until  the  supply  of  carbo- 
hydrates becomes  insufifcient.  The  organized  proteids  are  drawn  upon 
only  in  case  both  carbohydrates  and  fat  fail  to  supply  the  demand.     In 


154 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


the  feeding  of  work  animals,  therefore,  the  main  problem  is  to  furnish  a 
sufficient  supply  of  nitrogen-free  nutrients,  while  high  protein  content  is 
of  minor  importance. 

Zuntz  and  his  co-workers  have  studied  the  problem  of  the  consumption 
of  nutrients  in  different  kinds  of  work  and  demonstrated  that  the  dog 
employed  in  draft  work  on  a  level  course  utilizes  29  per  cent  of  the  en- 
tire energy  expended,  in  useful  performance,  and  30.7  per  cent  in  steep 
up-grade  work.  Man  utilizes  33  per  cent,  herbivora  in  horizontal  motion 
35  per  cent  and  in  horizontal  draft  31.3  per  cent. 

Zuntz,  Lehmann  and  Hagemann  determined  the  following  valuations 
for  the  horse: 

Energy    consumed 

per  1  kg.  of  mass 

Rate  of  (animal  +  harness 

travel  per  -\-    load,   if    any) 

minute  for  distance  of  one 

meter 

Motion  on  level  course,  no  load,  walking 78    meters  0.3256  calories 

Motion  on  level  course,  no  load,  walking 90    meters  0.3530  calories 

Motion  on  level  course,  no  load,  walking 96.3  meters  0.4346  calories 

Motion  on  level  course,  no  load,  trotting 176-205     meters  0.5478  calories 

Motion  on  level  course  5       load  of       |  walking       90    meters  0.3914  calories 

Motion  on  level  course  ( about  125  kg.  }  trotting     185.5  meters  0.6007  calories 

Energy  consumed 
in  lifting  1  kg.  of 
mass  to  height  of  Efficiency 

1  meter 

Upgrade,  without  load,  walking,  grade  10.7° 6.8508  calories  34.3% 

Upgrade,  without  load,  walking,  grade  18.1°....  6.9787  calories  33.7% 

Upgrade,  without  load,  trotting,  grade  10.7° 7.3647  calories  32.0% 

Energy     consumed 
in  plain  draft  per-         Efficiency 
formance 

Draft  performance,  walking,  grade  0.5° 7,143  calories  31.3% 

Draft  performance,  walking,  grade  8.5° 10,235  calories  22.7% 

Draft  performance,  trot,  level  course 7,519  calories  31.3% 

Draft  up  hill  (over  exertion) 10,078  calories  23.0% 

Energy  consumption  and  effciency  are  to  no  inconsiderable  degree 
affected  by  individuality,  practice  and  fatigue.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
amount  of  energy  consumed  is  not  affected  by  the  character  of  the  nutri- 
ents. Digested  albumen,  fat  and  digested  carbohydrates  may,  after  de- 
duction of  the  work  or  energy  required  for  mastication  and  digestion, 
replace  one  another  according  to  isodynamic  values. 

3.  Inorganic  Nutrients 
In  addition  to  the  organic  nutrients,  animals  require  a  sufficient  supply 
of  inorganic  substances.  These  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  support 
of  life  and  the  maintenance  of  health.  Withdrawal  of  these  substances 
from  the  food  causes  disease  and  death.  For  instance,  pigeons  when  de- 
prived of  the  mineral  matter  in  the  food,  but  receiving  an  abundance  of 
albumen,  fat  and  carbohydrates,  will  die  in  from  13  to  29  days   (they 


INORGANIC  NUTRIENTS  155 

will  live  12  days  when  all  food  is  withheld),  and  dogs  will  die  in  from 
26  to  36  days. 

Under  natural  conditions  animals  usually  receive  sufficient  mineral 
matter^  in  their  food.  When  kept  in  captivity  or  under  domestication, 
especially  when  fed  under  the  stable  conditions,  with  factory  by-products 
and  receiving  straw  instead  of  hay,  they  are  Hable  to  suffer  from  lack  of 
these  important  elements  and  become  diseased  (halisteresis).  Proper 
attention  should  therefore  be  given  to  the  inorganic  constituents  of  the 
animal's  feed. 

The  mineral  matter  occurs  in  feeding  stuffs  in  part  as  inorganic  salts, 
in  part  as  organic  compounds.  The  latter,  though  occurring  in  very  small 
quantities  are,  on  account  of  the  facility  with  which  they  are  absorbed,  of 
great  importance.  Among  the  mineral  substances  which  are  necessary 
for  the  support  of  life  we  have  potash,  sodium,  calcium,  magnesium, 
iron,  phosphorus  and  chlorin.  They  are  therefore  referred  to  as  bio- 
genic elements.  In  addition  they  have  certain  special  functions  to  per- 
form in  the  economy  of  the  animal  organism,  as,  for  instance,  the  func- 
tion of  phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime  in  building  and  maintaining  the 
structure  of  the  bones.  If  Hme  is  absent  the  bones  become  soft  and 
brittle.  Deficiency  in  the  supply  of  iron  is  apt  to  produce  anemia,  while 
deficiency  in  potash  causes  licking  disease,  etc. 

The  salts  of  phosphorus  are  necessary,  above  all,  for  the  growth  and 
maintenance  of  the  bony  structures  of  the  body.  Of  course  these  salts 
have  additional  functions  in  the  vital  processes  of  the  body.  The  life 
of  every  cell  is  dependent,  among  other  things,  on  the  presence  of  the 
nutrient  salts. 

The  content  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  salts  is  dependent  in  the  first 
place  on  the  kind  of  feeding  stuff,  and  the  latter,  on  the  other  hand,  on 
soil  conditions  and  the  moisture  content  of  the  soil.  In  times  of  drouth 
there  is  lack  of  water  as  a  solvent  for  the  salts;  under  such  conditions 
plants  can  take  up  only  a  limited  quantity  of  these  substances  and  as  a 
consequence  animals  are  supplied  with  a  deficiency.  It  is  a  common 
observation  that  softening  and  brittleness  of  the  bones  assumes  an  en- 
zootic character  in  dry  seasons.  Again  in  dry  seasons  (times  of  stress) 
feeding  stuffs  rich  in  lime,  like  hay,  are  frequently  displaced  by  those 
of  an  opposite  character,  Hke  straw,  which  are  deficient  in  lime.  The 
unfavorable  effects  are  further  emphasized  by  increased  consumption  of 
the  salts  in  question  by  the  animal  organism.  This  is  particularly  true 
with  respect  to  the  salts  of  lime  and  phosphorus  in  the  latter  stages 
of  pregnancy  when  the  bony  structures  of  the  fetus  draw  heavily  upon 

2Excess  quantities  of  mineral  matter  taken  up  with  the  food  and  not  used  for  tissue  building 
are  excreted  in  the  feces  and  urine.  When  the  total  ash  or  mineral  matter  in  the  food  gives  an 
acid  reaction,  the  phosphoric  acid,  lime  and  magnesia  are  for  the  greater  part  excreted  with  the 
urine,  while  under  opposite  conditions  they  are  excreted  with  the  feces.  The  ash  content  of  meat, 
milk,  many  grains  and  varieties  of  oil  cake  has  an  acid  reaction,  while  that  of  green  feed  and 
roughage,  roots  and  tubers  is  alkaline.  Since  the  latter  constitute  the  main  nutriment  of  herbivora, 
the  urine  of  these  animals  is  alkaline  in  reaction  and  consequently  poor  in  phosphoric  acid,  lime 
and  magnesia;  on  the  other  hand,  the  opposite  conditions  prevail  witb  sucklings  and  carnivora. 


156 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


the  reserve  supplies,  and  during  heavy  milk  secretion  or  rapid  growth. 
The  amount  of  phosphate  of  lime  excreted  with  the  milk  is  quite  marked. 
A  cow  giving  12  liters  of  milk  per  day  excretes  84  gm.  of  salts  which 
consist  of  lime  22.6  per  cent  and  phosphoric  acid  27.7  per  cent.  Thus 
the  daily  loss  of  these  bone  salts  amounts  to  about  37  gm.  Since  the 
proportion  of  salts  in  milk  may  be  regarded  as  constant  (except  in  the 
colostrum),  the  loss  of  phosphate  of  lime  is  in  proportion  to  the  milk 
yeld.  The  heavy  drain  upon  the  bone-forming  salts  during  pregnancy 
and  increased  milk  secretion  is  a  general  explanation  of  the  relative  fre- 
quency of  fragility  or  brittleness  of  bones  in  cows.  The  requirement  for 
bone  salts  is  influenced  by  the  size  and  rate  of  growth  of  an  animal. 

The  following  table  gives  the  lime  and  phosphorus  requirements  of 
the  different  species  of  animals  according  to  sex  and  age.  It  should  be 
noted  also  that  animals  (except  sucklings)  can  utilize  only  one-half  to 
one-third  of  these  salts  contained  in  the  various  feeding  stuffs,  and  that 
the  feed  supplied  should  therefore  contain  twice  or  three  times  the  actual 
requirement  of  these  salts. 

Lime  and  Phosphoric  Acid  Requirements  of  Animals 


Kind  of  Animal 

Wt.  in  lbs. 

Age 

Lime   re- 
quirement 
per  day 

Phosphor- 
ic acid  re- 
quirement 
per  day 

Calf  .... 

100 

2  to  3  weeks 

15  gm. 

14  gm. 

Do 

300 

5  months 
5  to  6  months 

16 
14-17 

18 

Do. .; 

18.5-22 

Do.    .. 

lyear 

21 

19 

Steer  ... 

;    per  1,000 

mature 

50 

25 

Pregnant 

cow   

.    per  1,000 

mature 

50 

25 

Milking 

:ow  10  liters  per  1,000  lbs.  wt.    per  1,000 

100 

70 

100  lbs. 

1      month 

3.2 

2.3 

100  lbs. 

5y2  months 

3.8 

2.5 

100  lbs. 

7     months 

2.7 

2.0 

100  lbs. 

8^  months 

3.2 

3.3 

Sheep    .. 

80  lbs. 

10     months 

2  5 

4.0 

100  lbs. 

11 5^  months 

2.7 

3.1 

100  lbs. 

13     months 

2.6 

4.1 

100  lbs. 

W/z  months 

2.6 

3.9 

100  lbs. 

16     months 

0.6 

0.04 

Wether 

.     110  lbs. 

2  yrs.,  mature 

0.6 

0.05 

1—240  days 

2.8 

Swine  .. 

8 — 11  months 

1.7 
3.0 

lyear 

3.8 

3.7 

Dog  ^  sm 
|lar 

all  breed  

3-6 

0.2 

ge  breed  

6-9 

0.8 

Horse   .. 

.       1,000 

mature 

50.0 

25 

According  to  investigations  of  Soxhlet,  the  proportions  of  the  daily 
amounts  consumed  and  the  amounts  utilized  by  a  suckling  calf  of  100 
pounds  live  weight  are  as  follows : 

Consumed 

Lime    14.75  gm 14.31  gm.: 

Phosphoric  acid  18.90  gm 13.70  gm. 


Utilized 
97.0%  of  amount  consumed. 
72.5%  of  amount  consumed. 


INORGANIC  NUTRIENTS  157 

The  percentage  of  other  mineral  matter  utihzed  (except  oxid  of  iron, 
which  is  38  per  cent)  is  less  than  38  per  cent  of  the  amount  consumed. 
According  to  the  results  above  tabulated,  the  lime  consumed  has  been 
so  completely  utilized  that  only  3  per  cent  of  the  amount  consumed  was 
excreted.  Since  a  small  portion  of  every  mineral  substance  that  plays  a 
role  in  metabolism  is  excreted,  even  when  entirely  wanting  in  the  feed 
consumed,  the  small  amount  of  lime  (0.44  gm.)  excreted  can  not  be  re- 
garded as  an  excess  in  the  feed  supplied.  On  the  contrary,  the  eager- 
ness with  which  suckling  calves  consume  lime-containing  substances  like 
mortar,  lime  and  chalk  is  an  indication  that  they  do  not  receive  an  ade- 
quate supply  in  the  milk  and  that  the  milk  of  our  highly  developed  breeds 
of  cattle  is  deficient  in  this  bone-forming  mineral  and  that  an  additional 
supply  of  lime  in  the  form  of  precipitated  chalk  (15  gm.  or  Yz  oz.  daily) 
is  advisable.  Such  daily  doses  of  lime  would  have  the  additional  advan- 
tage of  assisting  or  furthering  the  utilization  of  the  phosphoric  acid  in 
the  building  up  of  the  bones. 

Phosphoric  acid  and  lime  can  usually  be  obtained  on  the  market  in 
the  form  of  calcium  phosphate,  under  such  names  as  phosphated  feed 
lime,  bone  feed  meal,  or  precipitated  calcium  phosphate.  Since  lime  and 
phosphoric  acid  precipitate  each  other  in  the  digestive  tract  when  the 
contents  are  alkaline  in  reaction  and  thus  prevent  absorption  of  either, 
or  at  least  hinder  the  process,  it  is  best  to  administer  them  separately 
and  at  different  times.  For  example,  the  lime  preparation  (calcium 
chlorid  ^  oz.)  (or  prepared  chalk  up  to  from  3  to  6  ounces  per  day 
for  cattle)  may  be  given  daily  for  three  successive  days  followed  bj 
some  readily  absorbable  phosphate  (sodium  phosphate,  tablespoonful 
three  times  a  day  for  cattle)  for  three  days,  then  lime  salts  again  for 
three  days,  and  so  on,  provided,  of  course,  that  the  feed  used  is  deficient 
in  both  of  these  elements.  If  both  are  deficient,  both  must  be  provided 
in  this  artificial  manner.  Since  the  proportion  of  lime  to  phosphoric 
acid  in  the  bones  is  a  rather  constant  one  (52-40),  an  excess  of  either 
will  not  be  used  in  the  formation  of  bone  tissue.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
an  excess  of  phosphoric  acid  has  a  distinct  tendency  to  make  the  defi- 
ciency in  lime  more  pronounced  than  ever.  In  the  feeding  of  large 
amounts  of  concentrates  like  the  grains  and  oil  cakes,  with  slops,  beets, 
potatoes  and  straw,  there  is  a  deficiency  of  lime  salts.  This  deficiency 
can  usually  be  corrected  and  ordinarily  it  suffices  merely  to  add  the  latter 
to  the  ration,  but  it  is  best  to  do  this  on  the  three-day  interval  plan. 
Where  liberal  fertilizing  with  phosphates  is  practiced  for  crops,  addi- 
tion of  these  salts  to  the  feed  can  usually  be  dispensed  with. 

Lime  in  the  form  of  prepared  chalk  is  recommended  with  the  feeding 
of  sweet  pressed  feed  and  with  sour  silage.  The  lime  precipitates  or 
neutralizes  the  free  acids  and  forms  readily  soluble  compounds   (lactate 


158  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

and  acetate  of  lime).^  In  other  respects  calcium  chlorid  is  preferable, 
though  it  possesses  the  unpleasant  or  inconvenient  property  of  being 
very  hygroscopic.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  used  in  the  form  of  the  pure 
salt  but  in  solution.  Calcium  chlorid  is  purchasable  in  tins  (calcium 
chlorid  70  per  cent,  water  of  crystallization  30  per  cent),  and  this  may 
be  used  in  making  a  1  per  cent  solution.  Cattle,  sheep  and  horses  may 
receive  one-half  liter  (1  quart)  daily  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight  (about 
five-sixteenths  of  an  ounce  of  calcium  chlorid).  Swine  may  have  3  pints 
of  the  solution  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  mixed  with  the  feed.  For 
sheep  and  horses  it  is  best  to  administer  it  with  the  drinking  water.  The 
virtues  of  calcium  chlorid  solution  have  been  widely  arvertised  and  ac- 
tively exploited  in  recent  years.  It  is  noted  here,  however,  that  this  salt, 
or  its  solution,  has  no  specific  action  on  the  function  of  milk  secretion. 
The  same  efifects  may  be  had  with  any  feed  that  is  rich  in  lime  salt,  or 
with  other  soluble  salts  of  lime. 

Common  salt. — Depriving  an  animal  of  this  single  mineral  alone  will 
result  in  death.  It  is  an  indispensable  nutrient  and  serves  among  other 
purposes  as  the  basis  of  hydrochloric  acid  formation  In  the  stomach.  The 
formation  of  hydrochloric  acid  Is  Influenced  by  the  relative  proportions 
of  the  potash  salts  to  those  of  sodium  and  hydrochloric  acid,  to  the  ex- 
tent that  the  potash  compounds  displace  the  sodium  in  Its  combinations 
with  chlorin  and  the  resulting  potassium  chlorid  (on  account  of  the 
greater  affinity  of  potash  for  chlorin)  can  no  longer  serve  as  the  basis 
of  hydrochloric  acid  production  In  the  stomach.*  Since  feeding  stuflFs 
(especially  beets  and  molasses)  contain  a  greater  or  less  abundance  of 
potash  compounds,  but  are  relatively  deficient  in  sodium  chlorid  (as 
shown  in  the  table  in  the  appendix),  the  addition  of  common  salt  to 
rations  Is  Indicated  to  promote  secretion  of  gastric  juice  and  digestion. 
The  craving  of  the  organism  for  common  salt  when  animals  subsist  on 
feeding  stuffs  rich  in  potash  is  due,  in  part,  to  the  fact  that  the  presence 
of  the  latter  salt  results  In  a  certain  loss  of  common  salt.  As  already 
suggested,  the  potassium  combines  with  the  chlorin  of  common  salt  to 
form  potassium  chlorid,  and  the  sodium  which  is  liberated  combines 
with  the  acid  radicle  of  the  potash.  In  this  respect  carbon  dioxid  Is  of 
chief  importance.  The  result  is  that  the  organism  (the  blood)  contains 
an  excess  of  potassium  chlorid  and  sodium  carbonate.  The  kidneys, 
whose  function  it  Is  to  regulate  the  composition  of  the  blood,  excrete  the 
excess  (in  this  case  potassium  chlorid  and  sodium  salts)  and  thus  the 
sodium  and  chlorin  content  of  the  blood  is  lowered. 

It  is  a  common  practice  to  give  animals  regular  rations  of  salt.  It  is 
probably  in  rare  cases  onlv  that  there  is  an  urgent  necessity  for  this  prac- 
tice (different  forms  of  licking  disease).     According  to  investigations  of 

3The  aprreliensinn  that  arlmin;":tration  of  carbonate  of  lime  wifli  it';  neutralizinsr  effect  tipon  the 
"a«tric  inice  wniiM  nffect  thf-  full  nr  normal  utiHzntinn  of  nutrient  elements  has  been  removed  hv 
the  results  r,f  eNnerlnients  of  Volh^rrl.  A^nlhard  fonnri  that  the  iiti1i7atinn  of  food  elements  was 
not  affected  e>  en  when  tire  amount  of  lime  con'^nmed  was  so  creat  that  42  prams  was  daily 
rxcreted  with  the  feces,   thus  excluding  the  iio'isihility  of  acid   reaction  at  any  time. 

«  2  Naa  +  K2C03=^2  KCI-f-NajCOs. 


INORGANIC  NUTRIENTS  159 

Weiske  and  Wolff,  and  contrary  to  popular  opinion,  common  salt  in  no 
way  materially  affects  digestion  or  utilization  of  nutrient  elements  favor- 
ably, providing  that  the  animals  in  question  receive  normal  and  sound 
feed  (meadow  hay  for  sheep,  meadow  hay,  oats  and  wheat  straw  for 
horses).  However,  additions  of  common  salt  to  the  ration  are  of  de- 
cided value  in  stimulating  appetite,  favoring  the  production  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  in  the  stomach,  and  thus  aiding  gastric  digestion,  and  dimin- 
ishing the  injurious  effects  of  less  suitable  feeding  stuffs,  and  further, 
increasing  the  deposit  of  proteins  and  inhibiting  their  breaking  down. 
Stimulation  of  appetite  is  indicated  in  the  feeding  of  large  quantities  of 
relaxing  feeding  stuffs  (boiled  potatoes,  beet  pulp,  beets,  meals,  bran 
and  oil-cake  slops,  potato  fiber  and  other  insipid  material)  to  fattening 
animals  and  milk  cows.  But  here  too  the  requirements  vary  according 
to  locality ;  in  sea  coast  regions  or  other  places  where  plants  contain  an 
abundance  of  common  salt  in  their  composition,  additional  doses  of  salt 
are  hardly  required.  Animals  may  be  provided  with  this  nutrient  min- 
eral in  the  form  of  stock  salt  or  rock  salt. 

Stock  salt  (German  product)  is  common  salt  denaturized  by  the  ad- 
mixture of  ^  to  ^  per  cent  oxid  of  iron,  y^  per  cent  wormwood,  and 
a  small  amount  of  red  clay  and  powdered  gentian  root.  Rock  salt  (Ger- 
man lick  stone)  corresponds  more  or  less  in  its  composition  to  stock  salt, 
or  it  contains  variable  amounts  (10  to  14  per  cent)  of  gypsum,  magne- 
sium and  sodium  sulphate.  These  German  "lick  stones"  are  by-products 
of  salt  production  from  saline  spring  water,  consisting  of  the  residue  or 
waste  remaining  in  the  evaporating  pans. 

(In  the  United  States  "stock  salt"  is  merely  coarse  or  impure  table 
salt,  more  or  less  pure,  and  rock  salt  is  the  natural  product  of  salt  mines. 
— Translator. ) 

Daily  doses  for  horses  are  J/2  to  1  ounce,  milk  cows  ^  to  nearly  2 
ounces,  fattening  cattle  3  to  5  ounces,  sheep  ^  to  ^  ounce,  and  swine 
%  to  y2  ounce.  It  is  not  expedient  to  exceed  these  quantities.  If  com- 
mon salt  is  given  in  excessively  large  doses,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  form 
of  brine,  it  exerts  an  action  similar  to  that  of  other  neutral  salts,  namely, 
laxative,  retards  digestion  and  prevents  full  utilization  of  the  nutrients 
and  may  even  cause  disease. 

In  exceptionally  rare  cases  there  may  be  a  deficiency  of  potash  salts 
(in  addition  to  deficiency  of  sodium  salts)  in  the  feed.  This  actually 
occurs  in  sorfte  regions  of  the  Erz  mountains  (between  Saxony  and 
Bohemia)  and  gives  rise  to  diseases  known  among  the  populace  as  stable 
ill  (Stall  Mangel,  licking  disease).  Animals  refuse  their  feed  (hay, 
drink  and  concentrates)  and  show  a  greedy  desire  for  earth,  manure, 
rotten  straw,  wood,  etc.,  emaciate,  become  constipated  and  die  from 
starvation.  Postmortem  examination  usually  reveals  nothing  striking 
except  emaciation  and  anemia.  The  basis  of  the  trouble  is  an  alkali 
deficiency  (especially  salts  of  potash)  and  is  technically  known  as  halis- 
teresis  simplex,  to  distinguish  it  from  deficiency  of  the  bone-forming 


160  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

minerals  (halisteresis  ossium),  which  manifests  itself  in  brittleness  of 
the  bones  (osteomalacia)  and  in  softness  of  the  bones  (rachitis).  That 
the  trouble  is  due  to  improper  feed  and  not  to  other  local  conditions  is 
demonstrated  by  the  fact  or  observation  that  animals  in  other  regions, 
when  fed  on  hay  from  localities  where  the  disease  prevails,  become  af- 
fected in  the  same  manner.  On  the  other  hand,  hay  from  regions  habitu- 
ally free  from  the  trouble  will  cure  affected  animals  in  the  afflicted  locali- 
ties. Hay  from  these  afflicted  regions  is  referred  to  as  "sour  hay."  Such 
hay,  however,  is  not  "sour"  because,  as  was  formerly  assumed,  it  con- 
tained unusual  acids  (humic  acid),  but  because  it  is  deficient  in  bases 
(potash)  and  will  not  serve  to  neutralize  the  excessive  amounts  of  acid 
which  are  formed  in  the  body  when  large  quantities  of  hay  are  fed.  The 
acids  of  the  body  eliminate  the  small  supply  of  potash  and  rob  it  of  this 
vitally  important  salt. 

While  the  excess  alkali  in  good  hay  represents  about  30  units  (milli- 
gram equivalent  for  100  grams  of  dry  matter),  hay  which  causes  licking 
disease  contains  only  from  5  to  10  units.  Sometimes  there  is  more  chlorin 
present  than  can  be  taken  up  by  the  alkalies.  The  trouble  can  easily  be 
avoided,  however,  by  an  abundant  supply  of  feed  that  is  rich  in  the 
missing  alkalies  (potash  and  sodium),  e.  g.,  molasses,  6  to  10  pounds  for 
working  oxen  and  fattening  cattle,  3  to  4  pounds  for  milk  cows,  begin- 
ning with  small  quantities  and  gradually  increasing. 

Similar  conditions  prevaihng  in  moorland  or  marsh  pasture  regions, 
may,  in  the  opinion  of  the  author,  be  remedied  in  the  same  way. 

Lack  of  iron  or  its  salts  in  feeding  stuffs  is  probably  only  an  exceptional 
occurrence,  since  the  natural  feeding  stuffs  usually  contain  an  excess  of 
this  element.  Lack  of  iron  in  the  organism  (anemia)  is  probably  much 
more  frequently  due  to  other  basic  causes.  This  common  ailment  of 
sheep  is  attempted  to  be  overcome  by  the  administration  of  various  iron 
preparations  (sulphate  of  iron,  daily  0.5  to  1.0  gm.  for  sheep,  3.0  to  5.0 
gm.  for  cattle;  blood  meal,  etc.). 

In  the  feeding  of  animals  the  requirement  of  salt  or  mineral  matter 
should  be  kept  in  mind  in  the  selection  of  suitable  feeding  stuffs,  rational 
fertilization,  and,  where  necessary,  in  the  correction  of  deficiencies  by 
the  addition  of  the  salts  found  wanting.  Care  should  be  observed  that 
the  various  mineral  constituents  are  present  in  the  proper  proportions. 
The  composition  of  milk  may  be  used  as  a  basis  in  this  respect,  because, 
with  milk  as  a  food,  animals  not  only  thrive  best  but  the  excretion  of 
mineral  matter  is  at  a  minimum.  The  mineral  matter  in  cow's  milk, 
figured  on  the  basis  of  one  liter  consists  of  potash  1.7  gm.,  sodium  0.4, 
lime  1.7,  magnesia  0.2,  phosphoric  acid  2.0,  sulphuric  acid  0.1  and  chlorin 
1.0  gm.  These  figures  are,  of  course,  more  directly  applicable  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  growing  animal.  The  mature  animal  requiring  con- 
siderably less  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  the  proportion  of  these  ele- 
ments should  be  adjusted  according  to  the  character  of  work  (muscular 
work,  milk  production,  breeding,  etc.)   performed. 


INORGANIC  NUTRIENTS  161 

The  salts  of  iron  have  not  as  yet  been  discussed.  The  newborn  animal 
possesses  a  greater  supply  of  these  than  mature  animals  and  can  draw 
upon  this  excess  for  some  time.  Milk,  compared  with  other  feeding  stuffs, 
is  decidedly  poor  in  iron. 

The  proportion  in  which  CaO,  MgO,  KoO  and  NagO  occur  is  an  impor- 
tant matter,  as  well  as  the  proportion  of  the  total  chemical  bases  to  the 
mineral  acids.  There  should  be  an  excess  of  the  bases.  An  excess  of 
acids  would  neutralize  the  bases  of  the  skeleton  and  tend  to  dissolve  the 
latter,  that  is,  produce  halisteresis  and  rachitis.  With  respect  to  acid 
excess,  it  should  be  noted  that  in  the  process  of  albumen  combustion  the 
oxidation  of  the  sulphur  produces  sulphuric  acid.  In  herbivora  the  pres- 
ence of  hippuric  acid  causes  a  further  loss  of  the  alkalies  or  bases.  Since 
crude  fiber  constitutes  the  raw  material  from  which  hippuric  acid  is  pro- 
duced, grasses  rich  in  this  material  (grasses  of  poor  quality)  have  a 
tendency  to  deplete  the  supply  of  lime  in  the  body.  A  marked  excess  of 
one  salt  as  compared  with  the  others  required  may  disturb  metabolism 
and  under  certain  circumstances  produce  an  actual  deficiency  of  such 
other  salts,  even  when  the  latter  are  taken  up  in  normally  required 
amounts.  The  magnesia  content  should  not  exceed  that  of  lime  in  the 
ration,  but  should  rather  be  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  1.7  as  compared 
with  lime  (the  proportion  in  which  these  two  salts  occur  in  the  blood). 

gm.  lime  gm.  magnesia 

1  leg.  of  wheat  bran  contains    1.4  7.0 

1  kg.  of  linseed  cake  contains 4.3  8.1 

1  kg.  of  rice  feed  meal  contains 1.2  9.5 

1  kg.  of  Indian  corn  contains   0.3  2.0 

1  kg.  of  potatoes  contains 0.3  0.6 

1  kg.  of  stock  beets  contains  0.3  0.4 

1  kg.  of  rye  flour  contains 0.2  1.4 

In  contrast  to  the  above, 

1  kg.  of  meadow  hay  contains   9.5  4.1 

1  kg.  of  red  clover  hay  contains 20.1  6.3 

1  kg.  of  oat  straw  contains  3.8  1.2 

1  kg.  of  cow's  milk  contains 1.7  0.2 

1  kg.  of  meat  contains 0.3  0.3 

4.    Testing  Feed  Utilization  and  Assimilation 

In  all  feeding  thorough  digestion  and  complete  utilization  should  be 
the  objects  constantly  kept  in  mind,  so  that  the  end  attained  will  justify 
the  outlay.  Examination  of  the  feces  will  inform  us  in  regard  to  the 
degree  of  digestion  and  absorption.  The  degree  of  utilization  of  the 
nutrients  would  be  determined  in  an  exact  manner  by  chemical  analysis. 
Here  inspection  of  the  feces  would  give  some  information  along  this 
Hne,  though  by  no  means  always  entirely  satisfactory  even  for  practical 
purposes.  The  presence  of  undigested  grains  should  be  noted  (pressure 
exerted  upon  such  grains  forces  out  the  soft  interior,  distinguishing  them 
from  empty  skins  or  hulls!).  Undigested  particles  of  potatoes  or  other 
food  fragments  are  significant.    The  microscope  will  be  an  aid  in  recog- 


162  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

nizing  unaltered  plant  tissues,  while  the  iodin  test  is  specific  for  starch 
granules  (blue  color). 

Morever,  feed  utilization  may  be  controlled  by  noting  the  "condition" 
of  an  animal,  its  live  weight,  and  the  character  of  its  "performance." 
Feeding  should  be  adjusted  to  "performance."  A  common  error  consists 
in  short  rationing  an  animal  (especially  milk  cows)  during  the  cold 
winter  months.  In  such  cases  an  animal  may  receive  a  sufficient,  or 
nearly  sufficient,  maintenance  ration,  but  have  nothing  left  for  "produc- 
tion." We  do  not  get  the  full  advantage  of  the  animal's  producing 
power.  This  raises  the  cost  of  production  as  illustrated  by  the  following 
statement,  in  which  the  price  of  milk  is  figured  at  18  pfennigs  per  kilo- 
gram (about  4.5  cents  per  quart)  and  the  starch  value,  including  the 
albumen,  is  estimated  at  the  same  figure  (18  pf.  per  kg.  or  4.5  cents). ^ 


Ikg.milkClqt.) 

Amount  of  feed  received 

Cost  of  feed 

Milk3iclded 

Cost  of  feed 

Starch  value 

Albumen 

in  pfennigs 

Kilogram 

in  pfennigs 
(^cent) 

Kilogram 

Kilogram 

CA  cent) 

(about  1  qt.) 

3.0 

0.30 

54.0 

3.2 

0.36 

57.6 

1 

57.6 

3.4 

0.42 

61.2 

2 

30.6 

3.6 

0.48 

64.8 

3 

21.6 

3.8 

0.54 

68.4 

4 

17.1 

4.0 

0.60 

72.0 

5 

14.4 

5.0 

0.90 

90.9 

10 

9.1 

6.0 

1.20 

108.0 

5 

7.2 

7.0 

1.50 

126.0 

20 

6.3 

Furthermore,  in  the  feeding  of  milk  cows  special  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  proper  proportioning  of  proteids  in  the  feed.  Since  large 
amounts  of  protein  are  excreted  with  the  milk,  the  feed  should  be  rela- 
tively rich  in  this  nutrient.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  in  recent  times 
highly  nitrogenous  oil-cake  is  preferred  to  rape  and  palm-cake,  crushed 
grain,  molasses,  bran,  etc.  If  the  principle  of  feeding  according  to  prod- 
uct yielded  were  strictly  carried  out  the  ration  of  each  individual  animal 
should  be  accurately  weighed  and  thp  amount  fed  adjusted  in  proportion 
to  the  live  weight  of  the  animal  and  its  actual  yield  of  milk.  But  seri- 
ous objections,  or  difficulties  of  an  economic  character,  may  be  raised 
against  this  practice.  These  individual  weighings  require  much  extra 
labor,  and  special  feeding  arrangements  are  necessary  to  insure  that 
each  animal  receives  the  ration  intended  for  it,  and  no  more  (see  article 
on  mangers  and  feeding  racks  in  the  author's  work  on  hygiene). 

Where  individual  feeding  is  impracticable,  so-called  group  feeding 
may  be  resorted  to.  This  consists  of  dividing  the  herd  into  a  number 
of  groups  the  individuals  of  which  have  similar  requirements.  The 
number  of  groups  formed  would  vary  with  the  size  of  the  herd  and  with 
the  help  available.     Ordinarily  from  three  to  eight  such  groups  answer 

STranslator's  Note:  Since  the  idea  intended  to  be  conveyed  is  just  as  vividly  illustrated  with 
metric  weights  and  German  money  denominations,  the  translator  transcribed  the  original  copy 
without  any  changes. 


FEED  UTILIZATION  163 

the  purpose  very  well.  The  three-group  arrangement  would  provide,  for 
example,  for  cows  yielding  from  1  to  3  liters  of  milk,  3  to  10  liters,  and 
over  10  liters  daily,  respectively. 

Below  is  given  an  illustration  of  a  five-group  arrangement : 

Group  I  Group  II  Group  III  Group  IV  Group  V 

Feeds                  15-20  Liters  10-15  Liters  5-10  Liters  1-5  Liters  Drv  Cows 

of  Milk  of  Milk  of  Milk  of  Milk 

Clover  hay   )                      10  8  8  0  0 

Meadow  hay quantity  10  7-8 

Straw    y     given      ad  lib.  ad  lib.  ad  lib.  ad  lib.  ad  lib. 

Concentrates in  pounds      8  6  4  2.5  2.0 

Beets J                    80-90  60-70  40-50  40  15 

The  concentrates  consist  of  3  parts  wheat  bran,  4  parts  cottonseed 
meal  or  cake,  4  parts  sunflower  meal  or  cake  and  4  parts  peanut  meal 
or  cake. 

When  group  feeding  is  not  practicable  in  every  detail,  the  same  basal 
feed  may  be  given  to  all  animals  (hay,  straw,  chafif,  beets),  and  the  con- 
centrates may  be  adjusted  to  the  requirements  of  the  individual,  without 
disturbing  the  arrangement  of  the  cattle.  According  to  Geissler,  one  may, 
for  instance,  give  one  measure  of  feed  to  all  cows  yielding  5  liters  (or 
quarts)  of  milk,  2  measures  to  those  yielding  from  6  to  8  liters  (or 
quarts),  etc.  A  name  plate  should  be  provided  for  each  cow,  giving  the 
usual  information  with  regard  to  age,  breeding  date,  etc.,  and  temporary 
chalk  marks  may  indicate  the  number  of  measures  full  of  concentrates 
for  each  animal. 

The  co.st  of  the  feed  should  of  course  bear  a  certain  relation  to  the 
animal  product,  in  order  to  insure  the  expected  pecuniary  advantage. 
The  fact  that  one  animal  may  be  a  more  economical  or  profitable  feeder, 
produpe  more  milk,  meat  or  muscular  energy  from  a  given  amoimt  of 
feed  than  another,  has  long  been  common  knowledge.  For  decades  this 
fact  has  been  regarded  with  indifference.  Even  today  we  have  as  yet 
no  proper  conception  of  the  extent  to  which  feed  utilization  (especially 
in  dairy  cattle)  can  be  increased  or  the  degree  to  which  productive 
power  may  be  developed. 

In  experiments  with  feed  utilization,  especially  as  conducted  on  dairy 
cattle,  it  has  frequently  been  shown  that  the  expense  of  feeding  not  in- 
frequently even  exceeds  the  returns.  The  Danish  control  or  testing 
associations,  first  organized  about  twenty  years  ago,  deserve  much  credit 
for  drawing  general  attention  to  these  conditions.  Cow-testing  associa- 
tions, organized  on  the  Danish  plan,  and  which  have  as  one  of  their  ob- 
jects the  identification  of  every  "passive"  animal  in  the  district,  have  now 
been  established  in  nearly  all  civilized  countries.  (In  the  United  States 
since  1905.— Tranlator.) 

The  following  illustration  shows  to  what  remarkable  extent  the  "cost  of  produc- 
tion" may  vary : 

The  Danish  Control  Association  Ailing  showed  (1896)  that  among  54  cows  the 
best  two,  A  and  B,  produced  5,268  and  7.862  pounds  of  milk  and  234.4  and  309.95 
pounds  of  butter,   respectively,   at  a   cost  of   62.6  and   58  ore    (("ircmci    little   less 


164  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

than  Yi  cent)  per  pound  of  butter.  On  the  other  hand,  the  poorest  two  cows,  C 
and  D,  produced  5,861  and  3,111  pounds  of  milk  and  205.3  and  139.91  pounds  of 
butter,  respectively.  The  cost  of  the  feed  for  these  cows  per  pound  of  butter  pro- 
duced'was  115.6  and  112  ore.  The  market  price  was  the  same  in  both  instances, 
92  ore  per  pound. 

This  illustration  shows  clearly  that  production  power  considered  by  itself  is  no 
safe  basis  of  valuation  for  a  cow,  but  that  the  cost  must  also  be  considered.  Com- 
pare cow  A  with  cow  C : 

The  number  or  percentage  of  passive  cow^s  (for  which  the  feed  cost  is  higher  than 
the  product  value)  is  subject  to  considerable  variation  in  different  dairies.  On  an 
average  the  number  of  passive  cows  in  dairies  in  general  ranges  from  35  to  60  per 
cent.  By  systematic  culling  of  the  cows  recognized  as  unproductive,  and  breeding 
up  from  the  productive  animals,  these  associations  have  succeeded  in  increasing 
the  milk  and  butter  production  and  in  lowering  the  feed  requirements  and  production 
cost.  The  following  averages  based  on  figures  from  250  cows  in  the  Testing  Asso- 
ciation of  Faarup  will  illustrate : 

Pounds  of  butter 
Pounds  of  Per  cent  Feed  units      produced  by  100 

Year  milk  of  fat  consumed  feed  units 

1899-1900  5162  3.34  3921  4.87 

1900-1901  5284  3.44  3919  5.10 

1901-1902  6104  3.50  4144  5.74 

The  improvements  thus  brought  about  in  the  course  of  a  few  decades  are  simply 
marvelous  and  are  in  accord  with  observations  made  in  other  countries,  as  for 
instance  the  Control  Association  Gramm  in  Schleswig-Holstein,  1899  to  1902  ("also 
cow-testing  associations  and  registers  of  merit  or  advanced  registers  in  the  United 
States. — Translator) . 

In  1902  the  net  profit  per  cow  in  20  dairies  ranged  between  13.59  and  147.37  marks 
($3.39  and  $36.84).  The  differences  are  still  more  marked  when  the  annual  yields 
of  the  best  and  poorest  cows  of  the  same  dairy  are  compared  with  a  statement  of 
production  expenses.  Even  in  small  dairies  with  from  5  to  11  cows  the  annual 
difference  between  extremes  amounts  to  from  79  to  244  marks   ($20  to  $61). 

100  feeding  units     Net 
Feeding  units  consumed  produced       proceeds 

Pounds      Fat       Pounds     Concen-    Other  Pounds  Pounds  less  cost 

Year       of  milk  content  of  butter      trates         feed         Total    of  milk  of  butter  of  feed 

1899  5,345        3.3        191.77        1,074        3,600        4,674        114        4.10         8.% 

1900  5,676        3.2        196.77        1,062        3,592        4,654        122        4.23        25.00 

1901  5,716        3.25      201.19        1,069        3,450        4,619        127        4.45        39.90 

1902  6,580        3.2        2ZZ.7Z        1,053        3,647        4,700        140        4.95        71.38 

The  net  profit  from  the  best  and  the  poorest  cow  under  equal  conditions  of  feed 
supply  and  keeping  expense  has  been  observed  and  determined  in  four  experiment 
stations  of  the  United  States,  as  follows : 

Annual  Net  Profit  from — 

Experiment  Station  The  best  cow  The  poorest  cow  Difference 

Georgia   $121.21  $43.71  $77.50 

Michigan  76.25  6.38  69.87 

New  Jersey   52.21  0.14  52.07 

Connecticut     45.21  —4.29  49.50 

The  fact  that  a  coav  of  good  capacity  will  give  almost  double  the  prod- 
uct yielded  by  a  cow  of  poor  qualities,  under  the  same  conditions  of  feed 
and  keep,  of  the  same  breed  and  the  same  herd,  the  same  live  weight  and 
period  of  lactation,  should  certainly  emphasize  the  practicability  and  the 
economy  of  breeding  and  feeding  with  a  definite  purpose  in  view. 

II.    Calculation  of  Feeding  Rations  and  Feeding 

Aside  from  maintaining  health,  the  aim  of  rational  feeding  is  to  pro- 
duce maximum  returns  from  a  minimum  outlay.     Feeding  rations  are 


CONDENSED  FEEDING  STANDARDS 


165 


calculated  on  the  basis  of  live  weight  of  the  animal,  taking  into  consid- 
eration age,  size,  sex  (males  in  general  require  more  nutrients  than  fe- 
males, and  the  latter  more  than  castrated  animals),  breed,  individuality, 
the  end  sought  and  the  capacity  of  the  animal.  The  following  condensed 
feeding  standards  from  Kellner  will  afford  an  idea  in  this  respect.  (More 
exact  details  may  be  obtained  from  Klimmer-Johne,  Hygiene  of  Domes- 
tic Animals,  2nd  Ed.,  p.  148,  etc.) 

Digestible  Nutrients 
(per  day  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight) 


Q.S 
lbs. 

Mature  fattening  sheep 24-32 

Lambs 

(a)  Wool  breeds 

5-  6  months,     56  pounds 27 

6-  8  months,     66  pounds....  25 
8-11  months,     76  pounds....  23 

11-15  months,     82  pounds 22 

15-20  months,     90  pounds....  20 

(b)  Mutton  breeds 

5-  6  months,     60  pounds....  28 

6-  8  months,     76  pounds....  27 
8-11   months,     92  pounds 26 

11-15  months,   108  pounds....  25 

15-20  months,   140  pounds 24 

(c)  Fattening  lambs 

6-  7  months,     60  pounds....  31 

7-  9  months,     80  pounds 30 

9-11  months,  100  pounds 28 

Growing  pigs  (fattening  pigs) 

2-  3  months,     40  pounds 44 

3-  5  months,  100  pounds....  36 

5-  6  months,  130  pounds....  32 

6-  9  months,  180  pounds 28 

9-12  months,  260  pounds 25 

Growing  cattle 
(a)     Milk  cows  and  working  oxen 


2-  3  months,  140  pounds... 

3-  6  months,  280  pounds... 
6-12  months,  480  pounds... 

12-18  months,  640  pounds... 
18-24  months,  800  pounds... 
(b)   Future  fattening  animals 

2-  3  months,  150  pounds... 

3-  6  months,  30O  pounds... 
6-12  months,  500  pounds... 

12-18  months,  700  pounds... 
18-24  months,  860  pounds... 


ill 

J3  bo  o 

lbs. 
1.6 


3.0 
2.5 
1.8 
1.5 
1.2 

4.5 
3.5 
2.5 
2.0 
1.5 

3.5 
3.0 
2.5 

6.2 
4.5 
3.5 
3.0 
2.4 


3.4 
2.8 
2.3 
1.8 
1.3 

4.5 
3.5 
2.8 
2.2 
1.5 


lbs. 
14.5 


16.4 
13.0 
10.7 
10.2 
9.7 

17.2 
15.4 
13.8 
11.4 
10.2 

17.0 
16.0 
15.0 

33.8 
32.0 
26.5 
24.5 
19.8 


18.5 

15.2 

11.5 

9.0 

8.0 

19.5 
16.5 
13.5 
10.0 
9.0 


lbs. 

i.y 


3.3 
2.8 
2.1 
1.8 
1.5 

5.0 
4.0 
3.0 
2.4 
1.8 

4.0 
3.5 
3.0 

6.6 
5.6 
4.4 
3.9 
3.2 


3.7 
3.1 
2.6 
2.2 
1.6 

5.0 
4.0 
3.2 
2.6 
1.8 


lbs. 

0.7 


0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 
0.4 

1.0 
0.7 
0.5 
0.4 
0.4 

0.8 
0.7 
0.7 

1.0 
0.9 
0.7 
0.5 
0.3 


2.0 
1.0 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 

2.3 
2.0 
1.0 
0.5 
0.4 


lbs. 
16.0 


15.6 
13.5 
11.5 
11.3 
11.0 

15.8 
15.0 
14.5 
12.5 
12.0 

16.0 
15.0 
14.5 

28.0 
25.5 
22.5 
20.5 
18.5 


13.0 
13.0 
12.0 
11.5 
11.0 

13.5 
13.0 
12.5 
12.5 
12.0 


In  calculating  feeding  rations  the  volume  and  water  content  should  be 
considered.  These  should  be  adjusted  to  the  capacity  of  the  digestive 
canal,  its  physiological  peculiarities  and  the  kind  of  work  expected  of 
the  animal. 

On  account  of  the  relatively  small  capacity  of  the  stomach,  horses 
should  have  concentrated  feeding  stuffs  with  little  tendency  to  swell  in 


166  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

water,  mixed  with  chaffed  feed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  insure  thorough 
mastication  and  ensalivation.  Bulky  feeds,  Hke  straw,  those  of  low  nutri- 
ent content  or  watery  in  character,  like  roots,  tubers,  slops,  pulps,  etc., 
are  not  suitable  for  horses  in  large  quantities,  especially  when  speed  is 
expected.  On  the  other  hand,  a  certain  amount  of  bulky  feed,  judiciously 
administered,  is  frequently  economical  for  work  horses. 

Cattle,  like  other  ruminants,  are  able  to  utilize  very  voluminous  feed- 
ing stuffs  rich  in  crude  fiber.  Cattle  differ  from  sheep,  however,  in  that 
the  latter  require  dry  roughage  of  fine  texture  while  the  former  con- 
sume very  watery  material,  like  slops,  pulps  and  beets,  to  advantage. 
Work  cattle,  however,  demand  more  concentrated  and  less  watery  rations. 
Concentrated  rations  for  cattle  economize  by  lessening  the  work  of  carry- 
ing about  unnecessary  bulk.  In  all  cases,  however,  for  hygienic  reasons 
as  well  as  on  economic  grounds,  sufficient  dry  matter  should  be  adminis- 
tered in  connection  with  concentrates  and  bulky  watery  feeds. 

Swine  do  not  masticate  their  feed  thoroughly;  their  digestive  tract  is 
comparatively  short,  and  the  food  mass  passes  through  in  a  compara- 
tively short  time.  They  should,  therefore,  receive  easily  digestible  rations 
with  no  undue  amount  of  crude  fiber.  Cooking,  steaming  and  grinding 
assist  in  making  nutrients  more  soluble  and  expose  them  more  directly 
to  the  action  of  the  digestive  juices.  Swine,  therefore,  should  receive 
easily  digestible,  watery,  but  otherwise  concentrated  rations. 

The  volume  or  bulkiness  of  the  ration  should  always  be  adjusted, 
within  certain  limits,  to  the  species  of  animal  and  the  purpose  in  view. 
Excesses  one  way  or  another  may  produce  undesirable  effects.  Too 
much  volume  tends  to  distend  the  stomach,  overburden  the  abdomen, 
cause  curvature  of  the  spinal  column  (swaying  back  and  "pot  belly"), 
exert  pressure  upon  the  womb  and  fetus  in  pregnant  animals,  and  inter- 
fere with  normal  respiration  by  displacing  the  thoracic  organs.  On  the 
other  hand,  nutriment  that  is  excessively  concentrated  fails  to  fill  prop- 
erly the  digestive  canal,  fails  to  stimulate  properly  the  digestive  organs, 
and  produces  a  sensation  of  hunger  which  in  turn  tempts  animals  to  bite 
and  chew  on  the  feeding  mangers  and  walls. 

It  is  of  great  importance  also,  for  the  attainment  of  our  object  in 
feeding,  that  too  much  feed  should  not  be  given  at  one  time  and  that  no 
additional  nutriment  be  offered  until  the  last  feed  has  been  thoroughly 
cleaned  up. 

AgreeahilHy  and  palatahilify  should  be  given  due  attention,  especially 
when  the  end  in  view  calls  for  the  consumption  of  large  masses  of  feed. 
This  is  attained  by  special  preparation,  variety  and  system  in  administra- 
tion. The  less  attractive  feeding  stuffs  shoult  be  given  first,  or  mixed 
with  those  that  are  more  relished.  In  horse  and  cattle  feeding  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  give  the  roughage  first  and  follow  with  the  concentrates,  either 
alone  or  mixed  with  chaffed  feed  or  root  crops.  Following  the  latter  a 
little  more  hay  or  straw  may  be  added.  Changes  in  the  order  of  admin- 
istering the  different  constitutents  of  a  ration  are  not  infrequently  made 


CONDIMENTAL  FEEDS  AND  TEMPERATURE         167 

and  the  practice  is  not  objectionable  as  long  as  the  object  sought  is  at- 
tained, viz.,  complete  consumption  without  undue  excitement  or  disturb- 
ance of  the  animal. 

With  the  great  variety  of  feeding  stuffs  at  our  disposal  it  is  an  easy 
matter  (as  a  rule)  to  correct  deficiencies  or  to  produce  desired  dietetic 
effects.  Thus  young  succulent  grasses  and  aromatic  (yarrow  or  milfoil, 
caraway,  wild  thyme,  common  or  wild  marjoram  and  mint)  or  bitter 
herbs  (common  tansy,  mug  worth  and  wormwood,  chicory,  germander  or 
heart  clover,  elecampane)  and  the  common  thistle  are  regarded  as  excel- 
lent appetizers  and  digestive  tonics.  Young  thistles  fed  to  horses  pro- 
duce a  smooth  and  glossy  hair  coat  and  promote  shedding.  Bran,  linseed 
meal  and  hempseed  meal  are  credited  with  similar  virtues.  The  latter 
also  soothe  irritated  mucous  membranes  of  the  digestive  tract  and  assist 
the  movement  of  constipating  feeding  stuffs  (legumes)  through  the  ali- 
mentary canal. 

Condimental  feeds  should  also  be  mentioned  at  this  place.  These  in- 
clude common  salt  and  such  feeding  stuffs  as  contain  ethereal  oils,  bitter 
principles,  salts,  certain  vegetable  acids,  and  limited  amounts  of  alkaloids. 
Their  importance  in  nutrition  does  not  depend  upon  their  actual  nutri- 
ent value,  but  is  ascribed  to  their  stimulating  effect  upon  digestion  and 
metabolism.  Results  of  experiments  on  animals,  under  normal  condi- 
tions, do  not,  however,  bear  out  this  view.  Feed  utilization  is  unaffected, 
but  these  substances  no  doubt  play  an  important  role  by  making  possible 
the  consumption  of  large  quantities  of  feeding  stuffs  not  relished  under 
ordinary  conditions.  The  importance  of  condimental  feeding  stuffs  con- 
sists chiefly  in  the  fact  that  when  occasionally  added  to  the  ration  they 
stimulate  the  appetite  and  the  secretion  of  the  digesive  fluids  and  pos- 
sibly influences  the  intestinal  flora  and  thus  indirectly  serve  to  control 
fermentative  processes  and  decomposition. 

Every  change  of  feed  should  be  made  gradually.  Disregard  of  this 
rule  may  lead  to  digestive  disturbances  (diarrhea,  constipation),  perma- 
nent aversion  to  the  new  feeding  stuff,  loss  of  appetite,  etc.  Changes 
of  feed  are  most  frequent  at  the  time  of  year  when  green  fodder  dis- 
places dry  fodder,  and  vice  versa,  or  when  root  crops,  silage,  new  hay 
and  oats  or  molasses  are  first  available.  Other  occasions  are  when  con- 
centrates are  changed  at  weaning  time  or  when  the  usual  methods  of 
preparation  are  modified.  The  time  required  for  making  changes  de- 
pends upon  the  extent  and  character  of  the  change.  As  a  rule  a  period  of 
ten  days  should  be  covered.  While  sound  and  hygienically  unobjection- 
able feeding  stuffs  demand  care  in  this  respect,  still  greater  caution 
should  be  observed  with  feeding  stuffs  possessing  undesirable  peculiari- 
ties. While  sudden  changes  to  such  feeding  stuffs  may  result  in  actual 
and  dangerous  disease,  gradual  transition  may  be  accomplished  without 
the  least  harm. 

The  temperature  at  which  feed  is  administered  is  of  importance.  The 
maximum  temperature  for  young  animals  is  104°  F. ;  more  mature  ani- 


168  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

rnals  tolerate  113°  F.  Feed  that  is  too  hot  may  under  circumstances 
cause  fatal  disease.  The  minimum  temperature  is  more  difficult  to  deter- 
mine, but  ranges  in  the  neighborhood  of  44°  or  45°  F.  Stabled  animals 
should  not  receive  water  that  is  too  cold.  Aside  from  the  danger  of 
digestive  disturbances  (diarrhea  and  colic)  and  possible  abortion  in  preg- 
nant animals,  feed  at  too  low  temperature  abstracts  considerable  heat 
from  the  body,  which  must  be  replaced  at  the  expense  of  so  much  nutri- 
ment. 

Mangers,  feeding  racks  and  boxes  as  well  as  all  vessels  and  implements 
used  in  connection  with  feeding  should  be  kept  clean  and  all  traces  of 
leavings,  especially  of  wet  or  steamed  feeding  stuffs  should  be  removed. 
The  latter  have  a  tendency  to  decompose  rapidly,  and  the  consequences 
of  this  we  should  seek  to  avoid.  Cleanliness  is  indispensable  in  success- 
ful feeding.  Neglect  in  this  respect  is  the  explanation  of  many  cases  of 
poor  appetite  or  of  the  supposed  presence  of  undesirable  feed  admixtures. 
One  should  not  be  deceived  with  the  idea  that  the  leavings  of  one  feed 
will  be  consumed  with  the  next  ration.  This  is  particularly  applicable 
to  the  horse.  Sensitive  animals  will  submit  to  a  certain  degree  of  starva- 
tion before  they  will  eat  leavings  with  an  unpleasant  or  sour  smell.  The 
preparation  of  the  feed  (cooking,  steaming,  scalding)  should  immedi- 
ately precede  feeding.  The  practice  of  letting  feeding  stuffs  of  this  char- 
acter stand  around  for  days  before  using  is,  on  account  of  their  great 
tendency  to  ferment  and  spoil,  condemnable  to  say  the  least. 

The  time  or  times  for  feeding  must  be  chosen  to  suit  the  age  as  well 
as  the  use  of  the  animal.  While  a  single  feed  per  day  suffices  for  dogs, 
cattle  should  be  fed  three  times  (rarely  twice  or  in  case  of  bulky  feed, 
four  times),  sheep  four  times,  swine  three  or  four  times,  horses  three 
times,  and  young  stock  four  to  six  times.  Toward  the  end  of  the  fatten- 
ing period,  when  the  appetite  has  become  less  keen,  it  pays  to  feed 
oftener,  in  smaller  quantities,  but  the  periods  should  be  distributed  as 
equally  as  possible  throughout  the  day.  Regularity  of  feeding  should 
be  strictly  observed.  If  the  periods  between  meals  are  unusually  pro- 
longed the  feed  is  taken  up  with  too  much  greed,  mastication  is  neglected, 
ensalivation  suffers,  and  overeating  may  occur,  causing  disturbances  of 
digestion  and  nutrition.  If  the  feeding  intervals  are  too  short  the  appe- 
tite fails  and  the  rations  are  not  fully  consumed;  the  beslavered  feed 
that  remains  produces  aversion  and  is  wasted,  and  nutrition  suffers. 

Milk  cows  should  be  fed  after  milking.  The  common  practice  of  feed- 
ing before  milking  reduces  the  milk  yield,  and  in  case  of  dry  feeding 
(hay)  pollutes  the  air  and,  in  turn,  infects  the  milk  with  bacteria. 

Work  animals  should  have  sufficient  intervals  of  rest.  Horses  should 
rest  two  hours,  work  oxen  three.     Oxen  require  more  time  to  ruminate. 

The  percentage  of  dry  matter  in  the  ration  serves  as  a  basis  for  the 
volume  administered.  The  daily  requirement  of  dry  matter  for  young, 
suckling  animals  is  between  one-fiftieth  and  one-sixtieth  of  the  live 
weight.    As  the  animal  develops  this  should  be  increased.    At  the  age  of 


ENERGY  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  169 

one  year  it  should  be  one-fortieth  for  ruminants,  while  more  mature, 
producting  herbivora  may  have  as  high  as  one-thirty-third  of  their  live 
weight.  Mature  horses,  work  oxen  and  boars  require  one-fortieth,  and 
growing  pigs,  after  weaning,  and  fattening  swine  demand  one-thirty- 
third  of  their  live  weight  in  the  form  of  dry  matter.  While  the  values 
given  should  be  rather  closely  followed  for  the  digestible  nutrients,  a 
variation  in  the  total  dry  matter,  amounting  to  10  per  cent,  is  of  less  con- 
sequence, provided  always  that  any  change  from  the  accustomed  volume 
is  made  gradually.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  dry  matter  for 
herbivora  is  furnished  in  the  form  of  hay,  horses  requiring  about  (5) 
8-10  (20)  pounds,  cattle  (6)  12  (28),  sheep  (1)  2  (4-5)  pounds  per 
day  per  head,  or,  figured  on  the  basis  of  live  weight,  horses  one  one- 
hundredeth,  cattle  one-eightieth,  and  sheep  one-fiftieth  per  total  live 
weight. 

In  the  past,  feeding  rations  were  based  on  the  chemical  composition  of  the  feeding 
stuffs,  under  the  impression  that  a  correct  relative  proportion  of  the  nutrient  ele- 
ments was  all  that  was  required.  But  Kellner  has  pointed  out  the  fallacy  of  this 
assumption.  "Should  we  persist  in  this  assumption  and  ascribe  equal  values  to  the 
various  nutrients,  irrespective  of  their  source,  whether  contained  in  straw  or  in  the 
grains,  we  should  blunder  most  seriously.  Nor  should  the  crude  fiber  of  the  various 
feeding  stuffs  be  looked  upon  as  useless  and  our  attention  confined  to  the  other 
ingredients  as  formerly.     This  would  be  a  serious  mistake." 

The  value  of  crude  fiber  is  subject  to  variation.  The  crude  fiber  contained  in 
certain  feeding  stuffs  requires  more  energy  for  its  digestion  than  it  furnishes  the 
organism.  In  other  feeding  stuffs  a  certain  amount  of  the  digested  crude  fiber  is 
equal  in  value  to  that  of  starch.  The  fact  that  the  energy  value  of  a  feeding  stuff 
does  not  correspond  directly  to  its  chemical  composition  is  due  to  its  variable  physical 
character  (its  requirement  for  mastication  and  overburden  of  the  digestive  tract), 
to  its  characteristic  chemical  "structure,"  its  possible  content  of  valuable  nonnutri- 
ents  (enzymes  and  stimulants)  as  well  as  to  its  mere  bulk  or  volume,  its  behavior 
toward  fermentative  processes,  etc. 

Kellner  has  determined  the  energy  value  of  the  most  important  feed- 
ing stuffs  and  introduced  it  in  the  calculation  of  rations.  The  energy 
value  of  a  feeding  stuff  includes  the  total  productive  action  of  all  of  the 
digestible  organic  substances,  hence  all  of  the  albumen  or  protein,  fat  and 
carbohydrates  combined.  The  energy  value  of  starch  is  used  as  a  basis. 
In  the  calculation  of  feeding  rations,  according  to  Kellner's  method,  it  is 
necessary  to  consider  only  the  starch  value  and  the  digestible  proteids. 
This  not  only  simplifies  calculations  but,  since  the  peculiarities  of  the 
different  feeding  stuffs  are  also  taken  into  consideration,  the  results  are 
considerably  more  accurate. 

The  starch  value  of  feeding  stuffs  the  nutrients  of  which  are  100  percent  avail- 
able can  be  readily  calculated.     According  to  Kellner,  thus : 

1  part  of  digestible  protein  =  0.94  parts  of  starch  value. 

1  part  of  digestible  fat,  in  roughages,  chaff,  root  crops  and  their  by-products  = 
1.91  parts  of  starch  value. 

1  part  of  digestible  fat  in  grains  and  their  by-products  not  belonging  to  the  oil- 
producing  seeds  =  2.12  parts  of  the  starch  value. 

1  part  of  fat  in  oil  cake  or  meal  =  2.41  parts  of  starch  value. 

1  part  of  digestible  nitrogen-free  extract  and  crude  fiber  (combined)  =  1.0  parts 
of  starch  value. 

Since  the  digestible  nutrients  of  only  a  few  feeding  stuffs  (potatoes,  corn,  hulled 
rice,  some  feed  meals,  oil  seeds  and  oil  cake,  gluten,  and  feeding  stuffs  of  animal 


170  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

origin,  like  tankage,  etc.)  are  completely  metabolized,  i.e.,  are  100  percent 
available,  this  fact  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  calculating  the  starch 
value  and  the  difference  should  be  adjusted.  The  available  energy  or  "value" 
of  the  various  classes  of  feeding  stuffs  as  well  as  that  of  the  individual  feeding 
stuffs  is  subject  to  considerable  variation.  This  is  due  to  differences  in  digestibil- 
ity, the  amount  of  work  required  in  the  act  of  digestion,  losses  from  fermentative 
processes  in  the  digestive  canal,  etc.  Thus,  in  potatoes  100  percent  of  the  digestible 
nutrients  are  available  and  metabolizable ;  in  small  field  beets  only  72  percent;  poor 
meadow  hay  49  percent,  and  good  meadow  hay  78  percent.  The  nutrients  in  the 
seeds  of  the  grain-bearing  grasses  (cereals),  Leguminosae  and  oil-producing  plants 
are  90  to  lOO  percent  metabolizable.  Most  of  the  by-products  of  the  sugar,  starch 
and  distilling  industries  are  somewhat  less  metabolizable  (about  80  to  90  percent). 
Milling  by-products  show  a  very  considerable  variation  in  this  respect  (70  to  1()0 
percent),  and  the  various  chaffs,  shells,  hulls,  etc.,  are  still  lower  in  "value."  In 
general  all  varieties  of  straw  are  inferior  in  this  respect  (30  to  50  percent),  and 
the  same  may  be  said  of  poor  grades  of  hay  and  green  forage  in  the  woody  stage, 
while  young  succulent  grasses  approach  the  grains  in  the  facility  or  completeness 
with  which  their  digestible  nutrients  are  metabolized. 

Kellner  standardized  the  energy  values  of  the  various  feeding  stuffs.  The  objec- 
tion might  be  raised  that  this  is  impossible  in  view  of  the  variety  of  purposes  aimed 
at,  breed,  age,  manner  of  preparation,  mixture  of  feeding  stuffs,  their  content  in 
mineral  matter,  stimulating  substances,  etc.  It  is  known  from  practical  experience 
that  these  factors  influence  results.  Though  these  weak  points  are  admitted,  they 
arc  of  secondary  importance  when  the  positive  value  of  Kellner's  method  is  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  the  former  custom  of  basing  feeding  rations  almost 
wholly  upon  the  chemical  composition  of  the  ingredients.  Furthermore,  the  diffi- 
culties met  with  in  Kellner's  method  may  be  expected  to  be  gradually  overcome  as 
our  experimental  knowledge  is  increased. 

Instead  of  the  formerly  used  "nutritive  ratio,"  which  indicated  the 
relative  amount  of  digestible  nitrogen-free  nutrients  and  digestible^  crude 
protein,  Kellner  expresses  the  proportion  of  digestible  pure  albumen 
(albumen  ratio)  to  that  of  the  digestible  nitrogen-free  extract. 

In  order  to  reduce  the  ratio  to  terms  of  two  figures  and  thus  simplify 
calculations,  the  fat-  is  multiplied  by  2.5  (old  method)  or  by  2.2  (Kell- 
ner's method)  and  added  to  the  carbohydrates. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  meadow  hay  which  contains  5.4  percent  digestible  crude 
protein  (of  which  3.8  percent  is  digestible  albumen),  1.0  percent  digestible  fat  and 
25.7  percent  nitrogen-free  extract  is  determined  thus: 

5.4:  IX  2.5 -f  25.7 
=5.4:28.2 
=   1  :  5.2 
The  albumen  ratio  of  the  same  feeding  stuff  is  determined  as  follows: 

3.8:  IX  2.2 -f  25.7 
=3.8:27.9 
=r   1:7.3 

The  nutritive  ratio  is  referred  to  as  "medium"  when  the  proportion  of  crude 
protein  to  nitrogen-free  extract  is  expressed  by  1 :5  to  6.,  narrow  when  expressed 
by  1 :2  to  4,  and  wide  when  expressed  by  1 :8  to  12. 

Those  nutrients  which  are  taken  up  in  excess  of  the  requirements  of 
the  body  for  maintenance  and  which  are  digested  and  absorbed  are  de- 
posited in  the  body  either  as  fat  (or  albumen,  muscle)  or  they  are  used 
up  in  the  production  of  muscular  energy,  milk,  wool,  etc. 

The  standardization  of  feed,  or  the  calculation  of  a  ration,  for  the 

6The  word  "total"  and  not  the  word  "digestible"  was  probably  intended  to  be  used  here  by  tbe 
author. — Translator. 


STANDARDIZATION  OF  RATIONS  171 

horse  is  a  very  simple  matter.  Each  animal  receives  a  certain  amount  of 
hay  and  oats  mixed  with  chaffed  straw,  as  explained  on  pages  61,  66 
and  85,  If  it  is  desired  to  substitute  some  other  feeding  stuff  for  the 
oats,  proceed  according  to  outlines  on  page  83. 

The  standardization  of  rations  for  cattle,  which  receive  their  feed  in 
courses,  so  to  speak,  and  for  swine,  usually  meets  with  more  difficulties.' 
The  difficulties  arise  in  providing  the  various  nutrients  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity and  proper  proportion  and  at  the  same  time  avoiding  all  waste.  The 
following  procedure  is  suggested : 

In  the  first  place  the  products  of  the  farm  should  constitute  the  basal 
portion  of  the  ration.  These  should  be  distributed  in  an  appropriate 
manner  among  all  the  animals  of  the  farm,  taking  due  consideration  of 
the  seasons.  The  basal  feed,  if  at  all  possible  and  practicable,  should 
consist  of  a  not  too  moderate  amount  of  good  hay.  Although  the  nutri- 
ents contained  in  such  hay  may  frequently  be  obtained  at  less  expense 
from  other  sources  or  in  different  form,  nevertheless  a  minimum  of  5 
pounds  of  hay  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight  is  desirable  from  a  dietetic 
point  of  view.  The  common  present-day  practice  of  furnishing  the  nec- 
essary nutrients  chiefly  in  the  form  of  concentrates  and  providing  the 
necessary  bulk  exclusively  in  the  form  of  straw  may  under  certain  con- 
ditions have  pecuniary  advantages,  but  not  infrequently  this  is  at  the 
expense  of  the  health  or  well-being  of  the  animal.  For  example,  this 
method  of  feeding  tends  to  deplete  the  organism  of  its  lime  salts,  espe- 
cially in  heavy  milkers,  unless  this  mineral  is  artificially  supplied.  Too 
frequently  this  not  done. 

The  five-pound  hay  ration  referred  to.  together  with  the  concentrates, 
root  crops  and  industrial  by-products,  is  not  sufficient  to  furnish  the  en- 
tire necessary  bulk  of  the  ration  for  herbivora.  The  dry  matter  in  the 
daily  ration  should  be  about  25  pounds  per  1.000  pound?  live  weight. 
The  combination  referred  to — hay.  concentrates,  root  crops,  if  available, 
and  the  industrial  bv-nroducts — contains  onlv  about  13  pounds  of  dry 
matter,  so  that  the  difference,  about  12  pounds,  may  be  provided  in  the 
form  of  straw  or  chaff,  \\niile  the  supplv  of  the  extra  12  pounds  of  dry 
matter  in  the  form  of  straw  is  entirelv  appropriate  for  the  purpose,  an 
excess  over  this  amount  per  1.000  pounds  live  weight,  in  view  of  the  hieh 
enere%'  requirement  for  the  digestion  of  this  character  of  feed,  would  be 
quite  irrational. 

Tn  addition  to  the  hay  and  straw  portion  of  the  ration  Cor  chaff  sub- 
stituted for  the  straw V  cattle  should  receive  feeding  stuffs  rich  in  car- 
bohydrates, like  beets,  potatoes,  slops  and  shredded  root  crops  or  pulp. 
The  character  and  amount  of  these  substances  must  be  gauged  according 
to  existing  conditions.  Milk  cows,  for  example,  should  have  from  20  to 
30  pounds  of  potatoes  or  30  to  50  pounds  of  beets,  or  corresponding 
amounts  of  similar  feeding  stuff,  per  1.000  pounds  live  weight. 

After  the  character  and  amount  of  the  roughage  is  determined,  such 


172  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

concentrates  as  are  necessary  to  produce  specific  effects  are  added.  For 
example,  palmseed  cake  to  improve  the  fat  content  of  the  milk;  wheat 
bran  or  linseed  cake  for  dietetic  considerations.  Then  consult  Table  I 
in  the  appendix  and  determine  the  amount  of  nutrients  in  which  the  ra- 
tion is  deficient,  and  supply  these  with  an  addition  of  concentrates.  To 
provide  variety,  to  increase  palatability  and  thus  stimulate  the  appetite,  the 
added  concentrates  should  consist  of  a  mixture  of  two  or  three  different 
materials.  The  determination  of  the  digestible  albumen  and  starch  value 
of  feeding  stuffs,  which  vary  in  their  composition  from  the  values  given, 
or  which  have  not  been  incorporated  in  the  tables,  is  made  according  to 
the  suggestions  given  on  pages  69  and  70. 

In  calculating  feeding  rations  the  values  of  the  digestible  albumen  and 
the  starch  value  of  the  first  four  items  (hay,  straw,  carbonaceous  feeding 
stuffs,  and  the  specific  concentrates,  are  determined  and  added  together. 
The  sum  thus  obtained  is  subtracted  from  the  total  required  per  1,000 
pounds  live  weight  per  day,  as  indicated  in  the  tables.  The  remainder 
indicates  the  amount  to  be  added  in  the  form  of  concentrates.  If  only 
one  kind  of  concentrate  is  to  be  added  it  may  be  selected  from  Kellner's 
tables  to  correspond  in  albumen  and  starch  value  with  the  material 
needed.  If  the  deficiency  is  to  be  made  up  by  the  addition  of  two  differ- 
ent concentrates,  the  calculation  is  somewhat  more  difficult.  To  make 
the  matter  more  concise  and  clear  a  working  example  follows. 

Supposing  it  is  desired  to  compound  a  ration  for  cows  yielding  30  pounds  of 
milk  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight.  Such  cows  would  require  daily  2.2  to  2.5  pounds 
of  digestible  albumen  and  11.8  to  13.9  pounds  starch  value.  Local  farm  conditions 
permit  (let  us  assume)  and  require  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight  5  pounds  good 
meadow  hay,  12  pounds  oat  straw,  SO  pounds  beets  (average),  to  be  fed  up.  In 
addition  to  this  it  is  desired  to  administer  2  pounds  of  coarse  wheat  bran  and  2 
pounds  of  cottonseed ,  meal  (decoiticated).  In  order  to  determine  whether  this 
combination  in  itself  is  correct  and  sufficient  the  following  calculations  are  nec- 
essary : 

The  quantity  taken 
1  lb.  contains —        The  ration  contains — 

Digestible     Starch  Selected     Digestible      Starch 

Albumen      value       consists  of —  albumen        value 

Meadow  hay,  good  qualitv....  0.038  0.310  5  lbs.  0.190  1,550 

Oat   straw    0.010  0.170  12  lbs.  0.120  2,040 

Beets,   average    0.001  0.063  50  lbs.  0.050  3.150 

Wheat  bran,  coarse  0.091  0.426  2  lbs.  0.182  0.852 

Cottonseed  meal,  decorticated. 0.395  0.723  2  lbs.  0.790  1.446 

Total   1.332  9.038 

Needed    2.2  to  2.5     11.8  to  13.9 

Deficiency — 2.2  or  2.5  minus  1 l.C-f-  3  to  4.8 

The  ratio  of  albumen  to  starch  value  is  1  :3.0  to  1  :4.8. 

Malt  sprouts  happen  to  have  a  similar  ratio  1  :34,  Brewers'  grains  1 :36,  cocoanut 
cake  1 :47. 

Supposing  that  it  was  desired  to  make  up  the  deficiency  with  cocoanut  cake  only, 


MAINTENANCE  FEED  173 

the  calculation  would  be  made  as  follows :  100  pounds  of  cocoanut  cake  contain 
•16.3  pounds  of  digestible  albumen  and  76.5  pounds  starch  value.  Thus  1  pound  of 
digestible  albumen  would  be  furnished  by  100  pounds  divided  by  16.3^.14  pounds  of 
cocoanut  cake.  Such  a  large  quantity  of  one  ingredient,  especially  of  this  character, 
would  not  be  at  all  suitable  for  the  purpose.  It  would  be  much  better  to  use  a 
mixture  of  two  or  three  concentrates,  selecting  some  with  a  lower,  others  with  a 
higher  albumen-starch  ratio,  so  that  the  ratio  of  the  mixture  would  be  the  same  or 
nearly  the  same  as  that  required. 

Supposing  that  we  should  select — 

Peanut  cake  with  38.7  percent  digestible  albumen  and  75.7  percent  starch  value; 
Rice  feed  meal  with  6.0  percent  digestible  albumen  and  68.4  percent  starch  value. 

To  solve  this  algebraic  problem,  let  .*•  equal  the  amount  of  peanut  cake  and  y  the 
amount  of  rice  feed  meal  which  together  are  necessary  to  furnish  the  deficient  1 
pound  of  digestible  albumen  and  3.5  pounds  of  starch  value;  then — 

38.7  6 

1    (the  desired  albumen)= x -\- y 

100  100 

75.7  68.4 

3.5   (the  desired  starch  value)=: .r  + y 

100  100 

To  eliminate  the  fractions,  mutliply  the  equations  by  100,  thus: 
100  =  38.7^  +  6      y 
350  =  75.7x-\-68Ay 

By  multiplying  the  upper  equation  by  68.4  and  the  lower  equation  by  6  and  sub- 
tracting one  from  the  other  for  the  elimination  of  y,  thus : 
6,840  =  2,647.08Ar  +  6  X  68.4^; 
2,100=    454.2  x-\-6X  68.4y 


4,740  =  2,192.88.1- 
4,740 

x^ ^=2.162   (pounds  of  peanut  cake). 

2,192.88 

Having  found  the  value  of  x,  that  of  y  is  easily  determined  by  a  new  equation 
with  X  expressed  in  known  terms,  thus : 
100  =  38.7;ir  +  6y 
100  =  83.6    +63; 
63,^100  —  83.6  =  16.4 
3,=  16.4  -i-  6:=  2.7  (pounds  rice  feed  meal). 

The  required  amounts  of  digestible  abumen  (1  pound)  and  starch  value  (3.5 
pounds)  will  be  contained  in  2.16  pounds  of  peanut  cake  and  2.7  pounds  of  rice  feed 
meal.     These  amounts  should  be  added  to  the  ration  under  consideration. 


B.  Special  Feeding 

I.    Maintenance  Feed 

1.  Maintenance  rations  for  oxen  at  rest  in  the  stable,  per  1,000  pounds 
live  weight  per  day,  with  temperature  at  53.6  to  61.25°  F.  (according  to 
Kellner)  should  contain  on  an  average  15  to  21  pounds  of  dry  matter, 


174  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

0.6  to  0.8  pounds  digestible  albumen  and  6.0  pounds  of  starch  value  (al- 
bumen ratio  1:12-14).  Small  animals  expose  a  relatively  larger  surface 
to  radiation  and  consequently  require  more  heat.  The  starch  value  just 
given  applies  to  animals  of  about  1,200  pounds  live  weight.  Larger  ani- 
mals (1,400  to  1,600  pounds)  require  slightly  less  (11.60  and  11.10  re- 
spectively), and  lighter  weights  (600,  800,  1,000  pounds)  require  more 
(15.2,  14.0  and  13.0  pounds)  starch  value.  The  albumen  ration  remains 
the  same. 

The  feeding  stuffs  should  consist  mainly  of  roughages;  deficiency  in 
albumen  should  be  corrected  with  oil  cake,  brewers'  grains,  etc.;  those  of 
the  carbohydrates  with  roots  and  tubers  and  their  waste  products.  This 
also  provides  the  necessary  mineral  matter. 

According  to  Kellner  the  following  ration  is  sufficient: 

1.  12.6  lbs.  oat  straw,  25.6  lbs.  beets,  1.0  lbs.  rape  cake. 

2.  14.2  lbs.  oat  straw,    2.6  lbs.  clover  hay,  0.5  lbs.  rape  cake. 

3.  13.0  lbs.  oat  straw,     3.7  lbs.  clover  hay,  0.6  lbs.  rape  cake. 

4.  13.3  lbs.  rye  straw,    3.8  lbs.  clover  hay,  0.6  lbs.  rape  cake. 

2.  Rations  for  wool-producing  sheep,  where  slight  increase  of  weight 
is  desired  (not  strictly  a  maintenance  ration),  for  1,000  pounds  live 
weight,  according  to  Kellner,  for  the  coarser  breeds,  daily  1  pound  di- 
gestible albumen  and  a  starch  value  of  8.3  pounds.  For  the  finer  breeds, 
1.2  digestible  albumen  and  9.0  starch  value. 

Since  wool  is  produced  from  the  albumens,  wool-producing  sheep 
should  receive  a  sufficient  supply  of  this  nutrient.  However,  not  all 
forms  of  albumen  can  be  converted  into  wool  with  equal  facility.  Among 
other  substances,  keratin  is  required  in  considerable  amount  in  the  for- 
mation of  wool.  This  occurs  very  sparingly  as  a  constituent  of  feeding 
stuffs.  In  order  to  supply  the  building  material  for  the  production  of 
wool  in  sufficient  quantity,  Zuntz  recommends  animal  epidermal  struc- 
tures like  horns,  hoofs,  etc.,  in  digestible  form.  This  is  of  special  im- 
portance when  the  albumen  requirements  are  supplied  in  part  in  the  form 
of  salts  of  ammonia  and  urea.  Zuntz's  preparation  is  put  on  the  market 
in  the  form  of  cakes  under  the  trade  name  of  Ovagsolan. 

The  basal  feed  should  consist  of  hay  and  varieties  of  straw.  Root 
crops  and  tubers  should  be  given  as  supplemental  feeds  only,  on  account 
of  their  high  water  content.  Deficiencies  in  albumen  may  be  corrected 
with  small  quantities  of  oil  cake,  lupines,  dried  brewers'  grains  or  simi- 
lar nitrogenous  material.  During  the  recent  years  of  stress  in  Germany 
attempts  have  been  made  to  supply  the  albumen  requirements  to  the  ex- 
tent of  33  per  cent  in  the  form  of  ammonia  preparations.  Silage,  neu- 
tralized with  ammonia  and  commercially  prepared  urea  (which  is  low  in 
cost)  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Below  are  given  a  few  mixtures 
or  rations  to  serve  as  illustrations. 


RATIONS  FOR  WORK  ANIMALS 


175 


Fine-Wool  Sheep 
Per  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight  Per  Day 


1. 
Legume  straw  . . 

Clover  hay  

Meadow  hay  II. 
Straw  (picked 

over)i   

Lupines  

Cracked  corn    . . 


Pressed  potato 

chips 

Meadow  hay  IL 
Legume  straw  . , 
Straw  (picked 

over)''^   

Lupines  

Rice  feed  meaL  . 


10  lbs. 
5  lbs. 
5  lbs. 

,  8  lbs. 
,  lib. 
,  2  lbs. 


40  lbs. 
.  6  lbs. 
.  5  lbs. 

.16  lbs. 
.  lib. 
.   lib. 


Beets    20.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II..  10.0 lbs. 
Straw  (picked 

over)i    12.0  lbs. 

Rapeseed  hulls  . .  5.0  lbs. 

Rve  bran   2.5  lbs. 

Rape  cake  0.5  lb. 

4. 

Potatoes     15.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II..  10.0  lbs. 

Clover  hay   5.0  lbs. 

Straw  (picked 

over)i    12.0  lbs. 

Cottonseed  cake  .  0.5  lb. 

5. 
Turnip    cabbage. .  .25  lbs. 


Meadow  hay   5  lbs. 

Alfalfa  hay   5  lbs. 

Straw  (picked 

over)"   10  lbs. 

Rape  hulls   4  lbs. 

Rice  feed  meal.  ...  1  lb. 

Beans     lib. 


Corn  silage    30  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II. . .  6  lbs. 
Bean  or  peavine 

hay  6  lbs. 

Rape  hulls   4  lbs. 

Straw  (picked 

over)i   8Ibs. 

Cottonseed  meal  . .  1  lb. 


II.    Rations  for  Work  Animals 

Since  the  nitrogen-free  nutrients  under  ordinary  conditions  serve  as 
the  sources  of  muscular  energ>%  wide  rations  will  answer  the  require- 
ments of  work  animals  (1:8-10).  Narrow  rations  (1:7)  are,  however, 
better  for  work  animals  that  are  not  yet  fully  developed  and  for  those 
from  which  more  intensive  work  is  required  (race  horses,  carriage 
horses,  etc.).  The  object  in  supplying  more  albumen  in  these  cases  is  to 
provide  a  better  blood  supply,  which  in  turn  acts  as  the  carrier  of  the 
necessary  oxygen  for  combustion.  The  extra  supply  of  albumen  is  there- 
for not  to  any  extent  concerned  in  supplying  muscular  energy. 

Work  animals  can  consume  relatively  large  amounts  of  fat  in  the 
form  of  feeding  stuflfs  rich  in  this  nutrient  (1  pound  per  1.000  pounds 
live  weight).  Loss  of  appetite  which  is  apt  to  follow  feeding  fat  in  these 
amounts  is  not  liable  to  result  in  work  animals.  The  exercise  necessarily 
associated  with  work  counteracts  this  tendency.  Fat  is  a  very  valuable 
nutrient  for  work  animals  on  account  of  its  concentrated  form  and  its 
energy  value  of  more  than  twice  that  of  the  carbohydrates.  It  has  the 
additional  advantage  of  less  bulk  than  carbohydrates. 

Rations  for  work  animals  are  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  maintenance  ration 
(6  pounds  of  starch  value  for  oxen  and  6.6  pounds  for  horses  per  1,000  pounds  live 
weight)  plus  the  energy  required  for  the  work  performed.  According  to  Zuntz  and 
his  coworkers  two-thirds  of  the  energy  value  of  the  ration,  above  that  of  mainte- 
nance requirement  can  be  converted  into  useful  work.  The  physiological  energy 
value  of  one  gram  of  100  per  cent  available  nutrient  amounts  to  1,598  kilogram 
meters^  for  the  carbohydrates,  3,642  kgm.  for  the  fats  and  1.968  for  albumen.    Thus 


TStraw   designated   "picked  over"  is   estimated   as  used  up   to  the   extent  of  75   per  cent   and   of 
the  same  composition  as  "very  good  summer  cereal  straw." 

8A  kilogram-meter  is  the  work  done  in  lifting  1  kilo  1  meter  against  gravity  or  the  amount  of 
energy  required  to  do  this  work. — J.  R.  M. 


176 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


the  useful  energy  per  gram  of  100  per  cent  available  nutrient,  in  excess  of  main- 
tenance requirement,  amounts  to — 

533  kilogram-meters  for  100  per  cent  availal)le  carbohydrates, 
1,214  kilogram-meters  for  100  per  cent  available  fat, 
656  kilogram-meters  for  100  per  cent  available  albumen. 

Feeding  stuffs  the  digestible  nutrients  of  which  are  not  100  per  cent  available  are 
estimated  on  the  basis  of  starch  value  instead  of  digestible  nutrients. 

1.     Rations  for  tvork  oxen,  at  moderate  work,  should  contain: 

Digestible  albumen    1.0  to     1.5  lbs. 

Digestible  fat   0.3  to     0.5  lbs. 

Digestible   carbohydrates    10.0  to  12.0  lbs. 

Dry    matter    20.0  to  25.0  lbs. 

Starch    value    7.4  to     9.0  lbs. 

For  oxen  employed  at  average  work  the  albumen  is  increased  to  1.4, 
the  fat  to  0.5,  the  carbohydrates  to  12,  the  dry  matter  to  from  25  to  28 
pounds,  and  the  starch  value  to  9.7  pounds.  At  hard  work  the  digest- 
ible albumen  should  be  raised  to  1.8  or  2.0  pounds  and  the  starch  value 
to  12.8  pounds.  If  economy  or  circumstances  make  it  desirable,  the  al- 
bumen ratio  may  approach  that  of  1 :5. 

The  bulk  of  the  feed  should  not  be  too  watery  for  work  animals,  and 
any  tendency  in  this  direction  should  be  corrected  by  the  addition  of  the 
necessary  dry  matter.  Furthermore,  excessively  bulky  feed  for  hard- 
working animals  should  be  avoided.  Roughages  alone  are  not  sufficient 
even  for  very  light  work.  A  suitable  feed  mixture  may  be  composed  of 
roughage,  a  moderate  amount  of  chopped  potatoes  or  similar  feeding 
stuffs  (beets  are  less  suitable)  or  dried  or  ensilaged  beet  pulp  or  chips. 
To  balance  the  ration,  oil  cake,  grain,  coarsely  ground  Leguminosae,  mo- 
lasses, etc.,  are  added.  Ample  time  should  be  allowed  for  the  consump- 
tion and  rumination  of  the  noon  meal  and  for  rest   (2^  to  3  hours). 


A.    Rations  for  Moderate  Work,  Per  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight  Per  Day. 


Potato  wash  . . . 

.50.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  . . . 

.  7.0  lbs. 

Summer  cereal 

straw    

.  6.0  lbs. 

Rape  Cake    .... 

.  3.0  lbs. 

Dry  beet  pulp.  . 

.  4.0  lbs. 

Rice   feed  meal. 

.  2.0  lbs. 

2. 
Ensilaged  beet 

pulp     

.60.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  III, 

.  6.0  lbs. 

Summer  cereal 

straw     

.  5.0  lbs. 

Winter  cereal 

straw 

.  5.0  lbs. 

Cottonseed   cake 

.  2.5  lbs. 

Peanut  meal  . . . 

.   1.01b. 

Dry  beet  pulp 6  lbs. 

Clover  hay 2  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  III..  2  lbs. 
Summer  cereal 

straw   6  lbs. 

Winter  cereal 

straw  6  lbs. 

Coarse-ground 

beans    2  lbs. 

Palmseed  meal   ...  1  lb. 

Cocoanut  cake  ....  1  lb. 

Peanut  meal    1  lb. 

4. 

Beets   40  lbs. 

Clover  hay 4  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II. . .  4  lbs. 


Winter  cereal 

straw    12.0  lbs. 

Malt  sprouts  ...  2.0  lbs. 
Cottonseed  meal 

(decorticated) .  3.5  lbs. 

5. 

Potatoes    20.0  lbs. 

Clover  hay    5.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II..  5.0  lbs. 
Winter  cereal 

straw    4.0  lbs. 

Pea  or  bean 

straw    5.0  lbs. 

Rape  cake  3.0  lbs. 


RATIONS  FOR  WORK  HORSES 


177 


B.    Light  Work.    Per  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight  Per  Day 


.50.0  lbs. 
.  4.0  lbs. 


Potato  wash  . . . 
Meadow  hay  II. 
Winter  cereal 

straw    

Summer  cereal 

straw    10.0  lbs. 

Sesame  cake    ...  0.5  lb. 


8.0  lbs. 


3. 

Meadow  hay  II . .  5.0  lbs. 

Clover  hay   6.0  lbs. 

Winter  cereal 

straw    6.0  lbs. 

Summer  cereal 

straw    7.0  lbs. 

Rape  cake  2.0  lbs. 


Beets    25.0  lbs. 

Clover  hay   6.0  lbs. 

Winter  cereal 

straw    6.0  lbs 

Oat  straw   8.0  lbs 

Poppy-seed  cake.  2.0  lbs 


Potatoes    10.0  lbs. 

Clover  hay   5.0  lbs. 

Winter  cereal 

straw    10.0  lbs. 

Oat  straw   8.0  lbs. 

Peanut  cake 1.5  lbs. 


Dry  beet  pulp ...  5.0  lbs. 
Winter  cereal 

straw    9.0  lbs. 

Wheat  chaff  ....  6.0  lbs. 
Pea  or  bean 

straw    3.0  lbs. 

Fresh  brewers' 

grains  6.0  lbs. 

Low-grade  rye  . .  2.5  lbs. 


Average  Work 

Hard  Work 

1.4  lbs. 

2.0  lbs. 

0.6  lb. 

0.8  lb. 

11.3  lbs. 

13.7  lbs. 

11.6  lbs. 

15.0  lbs. 

21-26  lbs. 

23-28  lbs. 

Ensilaged  beet 

pulp    40.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  ...  4.0  lbs. 
Winter  cereal 

straw    8.0  lbs. 

Pea  or  bean 

straw    8.0  lbs. 

Cottonseed  cake. .   1.5  lbs. 

2.  Rations  for  work  horses,  like  those  for  work  oxen,  should  be  ad- 
justed to  the  character  of  the  work.  Kellner  gives  the  following  nutrient 
values  per  1 ,000  pounds  live  weight : 

Light  Work 

Digestible  albumen  1 .0  lb. 

Digestible    fat    0.41b. 

Digestible  carbohydrates    9.8  lbs. 

Starch  value    9.2  lbs. 

Dry  matter    18-23  lbs. 

The  greater  the  efforts  required  of  the  animal,  the  less  roughage  should 
be  included  in  the  ration.  Heavy  or  fleshy  horses  should  rarely  have 
more  than  20  pounds  of  roughage  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight  per  day, 
usually  less  than  15  pounds  and  sometimes  even  less  than  10  pounds. 
The  roughage  may  consist  of  hay.  not  too  soft  in  texture,  like  alfalfa, 
esparcet  and  clover,  also  spring  and  winter  cereal  straw,  especially  those 
of  oats,  wheat  and  barley.  Oats  take  the  lead  among  the  concentrates, 
even  though  their  value  is  often  overestimated  and  though  cheaper  con- 
centrates may  frequently  be  substituted  to  advantage.  The  average  oat 
ration  for  an  ordinary  work  horse  is  about  10  pounds  per  head  per  day. 
The  amount,  however,  should  be  adjusted  according  to  age,  character  of 
work  and  weight  of  the  animal,  between  3  and  18  pounds. 

Rations  for  military  horses,  according  to  German  commissary  regula- 
tions in  garrisons  (small  ration),  are: 

Ration      I,  9,200  gm.  oats,     7,000  gm.  hay,  3,500  gm.  straw. 
Ration    II,  5,500  gm.  oats,] 

Ration  III,  5,150  gm.  oats,  ^2,500  gm.  hav,  3,500  gm.  straw. 
Ration   IV,  4,750  gm.  oats,  J 

Rations  for  marches,  practice  and  maneuvers  (large  ration)  : 
Ration      I,  9.200  gm.  oats,     7,500  gm.  hav,  1,750  gm.  straw. 
Ration    II,  6,000  gm.  oats,] 

Ration  III,  5,650  gm.  oats,  }■  2,500  gm.  hay,  1,750  gm.  straw. 
Ration  lY,  5,250  gm.  oats,  J 


178 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


The  term  "straw"  as  used  above  means  "r}^e  straw,"  and  the  chaffed 
straw  mixed  with  the  oats,  which  amounts  to  1,750  gm.  in  the  small  ra- 
tions, is  included  in  the  total  straw  ration.  4,000  gm.  of  wheat  or  oat 
straw  is  regarded  as  equal  to  3,500  gm.  rye  straw. 

Ration  I  is  intended  for  heavy,  cold-blooded  horses.  Ration  II  for 
horses  of  the  heavy  cavalry  and  artillery  type,  and  of  the  machine  gun 
division,  Ration  III  for  part  of  the  light  cavalry,  and  Ration  IV  for  all 
other  troop  divisions.  Increases  above  these  rations  are  provided  for  in 
the  regulations. 

The  following  table  gives  a  summary  of  rations  composed  of  sub- 
stitutes : 


Guide  for  Feeding  Work  Horses 

Amount  of  each  Feedstuff 


Feedstuff 

Heavy 

Average 

Light 

Heavy  Average 

;  Light 

Hay 

Straw 

Grams 

Grams 

Grams 

Liters 

Liters 

Liters  Grams 

Grams 

Barley    

.  6,500 

6,000 

5,500 

m 

7V2 

634 

2,500 

1,750 

Rye  and  wheat 

.  6,000 

5,500 

5,000 

8 

W2 

IVa 

2,500 

1,750 

Peas   

.  4,500 

4,000 

3,500 

5 

434 

4^2 

5,000 

3,500 

Beans   

.  4,500 

4,000 

3,500 

SVa 

5/2 

5^4 

5,000 

3,500 

Vetches 

.  4,500 

4,000 

3,500 

5 

434 

4^2 

5,000 

3,500 

Corn   

.  7,000 

6,500 

6,000 

lOj^ 

10 

914 

2,500 

3,500 

Buckwheat    

.  8,500 

8,000 

7,000 

12 

11 

10 

Lupines   

.  4,500 

4,000 

3,500 

5/2 

5 

4/2 

5,000 

3,500 

Meadow  hay 

Red  clover       J-  green 

.40,000 

35,000 

30,000 

Alfalfa            J 

Green  oats       ] 

Green  rye         1 

Green  wheat    | 

.35,000 

32,000 

30,000 

Green  lupines  J 

The  following  combinations  are  in  common  use  for  nonmilitary  horses ; 


For  Horses  at  Average  Work,  Per  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight, 
Per  Day  Per  Head 


1. 

Oats 6  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  H 15  lbs. 

Alfalfa  hay 6  lbs. 

Winter  cereal  straw  1  lb. 


Oats  9  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II 6  lbs. 

Clover  hay 6  lbs. 

Winter  cereal  straw  2  lbs. 


Oats  12  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II 8  lbs. 

Clover  hay 5  lbs. 

Winter  cereal  straw  3  lbs. 


Corn 5  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  6  lbs. 

Clover  hay 6  lbs. 

Winter  cereal  straw  2  lbs. 
Peanut  cake 0.75  lb. 


Oats   7  lbs. 

Corn 3  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  5  lbs. 
Spring  cereal  straw  3  lbs. 
Winter  cer'l  straw  1.5  lbs. 

Field  beans  2.0  lbs. 

Brewers'  grains 
with  molasses  ...  3  lbs. 


Oats 


Corn 

Meadow  hay  II. 


.10  lbs. 
.  6  lbs. 


Clover  hay 6  lbs. 

Winter  cereal  straw.  3  lbs. 
Peanut  cake 1  lb. 


Potatoes   18  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II — 10  lbs. 
Winter  cereal  straw  3  lbs. 

Peanut  cake 2  lbs. 

Rye  meal 4  lbs. 

8. 

Potatoes    8  lbs. 

Carrots    6  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II 10  lbs. 

Clover  hay 3  lbs. 

Winter  cereal  straw  2  lbs. 

Cracked  rye 2  lbs. 

Cracked  beans 3  lbs. 


RATIONS  FOR  GROWING  ANIMALS 


179 


B.    For  Horses  at  Heavy  Work,  Per  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight, 
Per  Day  Per  Head 


1. 

Oats   18  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  6  lbs. 
Winter  cereal  straw  3  lbs. 
Beans    2.5  lbs. 

2. 

Oats   5  lbs. 

Corn  8  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  8  lbs. 

Clover  hay 4  lbs. 


Winter  cereal  straw  3  lbs. 
Peanut  cake 2  lbs. 


3. 

Oats  10  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  10 lbs. 

Alfalfa  hay   5  lbs. 

Winter  cereal  straw  3  lbs. 

Palm  cake 2  lbs. 

Rye  bran 1  lb. 


Oats   Bibs. 

Rye 4  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  8  lbs. 

Alfalfa  hay  4  lbs. 

Winter  cereal  straw  3  lbs. 

Peanut  cake 1  lb. 

Linseed  meal 1  lb. 


III.    Rations  for  Growing  Animals 

In  view  of  the  growth  requirements  of  the  young  organism,  the  feed 
for  growing  animals  should  be  rich  in  albumen  and  mineral  matter.  The 
growth  of  young  animals  is  not  absolutely  inhibited  even  when  the  food 
supply  does  not  exceed  the  wastes  of  the  body.  Under  these  circum- 
stances growth  takes  place  at  the  expense  of  the  body  organs.  Under 
such  conditions  life  can  not,  of  course,  be  indefinitely  prolonged. 

Provided  with  an  abundance  of  production  feed,  a  suckling  calf  may 
make  daily  gains  of  4  pounds  or  more,  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight, 
while  the  mature  ox  can  hardly  make  gains  to  exceed  0.6  to  0.8  pounds 
per  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  per  day.  Such  rapid  development  of  young 
animals  is  possible  only  in  connection  with  an  ample  supply  of  easily 
digestible  nutriment  of  high  availability,  assisted  by  the  inherent  power 
of  the  young  to  assimilate  and  convert  albumens  and  minerals  into  body 
tissue  (Fig.  85). 

The  power  to  convert  digested  nutrients  into  tissue   is  gradually   re- 


.  g«j 

mmmsmi^' 

.^^ 

..J 

mam. 

t/^' 

^^5&l 

.  ':k 

C3& 

Fig.  85.    Pigs  of  the  same  litter.    Berkshire  Boars.    T"he  one  at  the  left,  starved;   the  one  at  the 

right,    properly   fed.      Farrowed    Dec.    9,    1910;    photographed   May    15,    1911. 

Weights  29  and   110   lbs.   respectively.      (From   Nathusius.) 


180 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


duced  with  advancing  age,  and  as  far  as  the  albuminous  tissues  are  con- 
cerned this  faculty  is  all  but  lost  (Fig.  86)  in  mature  animals. 

Regarding  the  nature  of  the  food  supply,  the  suckling  has  all  the  ad- 
vantage as  compared  with  the  mature  animal.  Milk  requires  no  work 
for  mastication,  it  is  readily  and  completely  digested,  and  contains  all 
the  necessary  nutrients  in  just  the  proper  proportions.  Compared  with 
these  conditions,  the  food  supplied  to  mature  animals  always  requires 
more  or  less  work  to  accomplish  proper  mastication,  and  contains  a 
considerable  proportion  of  nutrients  difficult  to  digest  and  of  low  avail- 
ability. In  the  feeding  of  young  or  growing  animals  it  is  of  the  highest 
importance  to  provide  a  sufficient  supply  of  food,  so  that  the  natural 
course  of  development  may  in  no  way  be  interrupted,  particularly  since 
the  results  of  neglect  in  this  matter  can  never  be  overcome  by  subse- 
quent efforts   (Fig.  86).     The  capacity  for  growth  diminishes  with  ad- 


Fig.  86.    Pigs   of  the   same   litter:    Berkshire  sows.    To  the  left,   starved   in   youth;  to   the   right, 

fattened  in  youth.    Farrowed  Dec.  9,  1910.    Fed  under  identical  conditions  from  Dec.  9,  1912. 

Photographed    at    same   distance    from    camera    Nov.    IS,    1912.     (From    Nathusius.) 


vancing  age  and  at  a  certain  period  it  is  completely  lost.  Futhermore, 
our  methods  of  feeding  must  be  directed  according  to  the  character  of 
work  or  service  expected  of  the  growing  animal  in  the  future. 

Meat-producing  animals  must  be  well  fed  even  in  the  fetal  stage  of 
development,  followed  by  an  uninterrupted  supply  of  rich  food  from  the 
time  of  birth  to  maturity.  In  the  feeding  of  young  meat  animals  the 
problem  is  not  confined  to  the  question  of  how  to  put  on  a  maximum 
amount  of  fat  (as  is  the  case  with  fattening  mature  animals),  but  rather 
to  the  question  of  how  to  utilize  to  the  fullest  extent  the  animal's  natural 
capacity  to  put  on  flesh.  The  solution  of  this  problem  depends  upon  an 
abundant  supply  of  albumen,  as  demanded  in  the  different  stages  of 
growth  and  development. 

Males  intended  for  breeding  should  be  well  nourished  but  not  fattened. 
This  applies  to  a  somewhat  minor  degree  to  animals  intended  for  milk, 
muscular  energy   (work)  or  wool  production. 


Rations  for  growing  animals  181 

The  most  natural  and  suitable  food  for  the  newborn  animal  is  the  milk 
of  its  own  mother.  The  milk  secreted  by  the  mother  during  the  first  few 
days  after  parturition  (colostrum)  is  richer  in  nutrients  and  on  account 
of  its  slight  laxative  action  has  the  effect  of  removing  the  meconium 
(first  excrement)  more  promptly  than  would  otherwise  occur.  For  this 
reason  the  newborn  animal  should  not  be  deprived  of  the  first  milk. 
Since  the  colostral  milk  coagulates  upon  being  boiled,  it  should  be  ad- 
ministered in  the  raw  or  fresh  state. 

Calves  from  dams  not  known  to  be  free  from  tuberculosis  should  have 
boiled  milk  only  (or  milk  heated  to  at  least  185°  F. — pasteurized),  to 
prevent  possible  transmission  of  disease.  Milk  from  other  species  of 
animals,  when  fed  to  the  newborn,  should  always  be  boiled  or  at  least 
pasteurized. 

The  limited  supply  of  ferments  in  the  digestive  fluids  of  the  newborn 
makes  it  possible  that  the  foreign  albumen  in  milk  of  other  species  can 
not  be  properly  "denatured"  by  the  digestive  fluids  before  being  taken 
up  by  the  blood.  These  foreign  albumens,  when  absorbed  into  the  blood, 
etc.,  in  their  unmodified  condition,  exert  a  harmful  action  like  any  other 
foreign  albumen  introduced  directly  into  the  blood  stream. 

There  is  a  prevalent  opinion  that  cooking  or  boiling  milk  produces 
changes  in  taste,  odor,  coagulation  of  the  albumen,  destruction  of  fer- 
ments, preventing  coagulation  in  the  stomach,  transformation  of  soluble 
into  insoluble  salts,  etc.,  which  make  it  less  agreeable  and  less  nutritious. 
Investigations  of  Dammann  have  shown  that  boiled  milk  is  entirely 
harmless. 

Feeding  experiments  with  27  calves,  by  Hittcher,  with  reference  to  the 
comparative  value  of  boiled  or  raw  milk  and  the  effect  of  the  addition 
of  salts  of  various  nature,  are  interesting.  The  table  shows  the  amount 
of  milk,  with  11.50  per  cent  dry  matter,  necessary  to  produce  a  gain  of 
1  kg.  (2.2  pounds).  The  experiment  extended  over  two  periods  oTfive 
weeks  each. 

First  period  Second  period    Average 
Kilograms      Kilograms      Kilograms 

Raw  milk,  alone 11.18  11.20  11.19 

Boiled  milk,  alone    10.36  11.25  10.80 

Boiled  milk,  with  common  salt,  2  gm.  per  liter 10.17  10.75  10.46 

Boiled  milk,  with  citrate  of  lime,  2  gm.  per  liter. .   12.28  10.35  11.32 

Boiled  milk,  with  monocalcium  phosphate,  0.6  gm. 

per  liter  13.51  '    11.31  12.41 

Boiled  milk,  with  calcium  chlorid,  0.4  gm.  per  liter  13.02  13.82  13.42 

According  to  these  results  the  boiled  milk,  especially  that  with  an  ad- 
dition of  common  salt,  seems  to  be  superior  to  the  raw. 

In  contrast  to  these  results  Bruening,  etc.,  found  that  kids  thrived 
better  on  raw  mother's  milk  than  on  boiled  milk  of  the  same  origin. 
However,  when  young  goats,  swine,  dogs,  rabbits  and  guinea-pigs  were 
fed  on  raw  and  boiled  milk,  respectively,  of  another  species  (cow's  milk), 
the  boiled  milk  produced  the  best  results.     Schrape  recorded  a  similar 


182  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

experience.  In  the  experiments  of  Brueckler  with  foreign  milk  (cow's 
milk  for  kids),  raw  milk  with  a  low  bacterial  content  was  superior  to 
pasteurized  or  boiled  milk  for  sucklings. 

In  any  event,  boiled  milk  should  not  be  administered  to  sucklings  until 
the  second  or  third  day  after  birth.  The  newborn  (calves)  as  a  rule  do 
not  thrive  on  boiled  milk.  It  is  liable  to  produce  attacks  of  indigestion 
and  diarrhea  (calf  scours),  frequently  of  a  fatal  nature. 

1.    Rations  for  Colts 

Whenever  possible,  sucklings  should  have  milk  from  the  same  species 
of  animal.  When  this  is  not  procurable,  we  usually  resort  to  cow's  milk. 
In  the  latter  case  newborn  colts  should  have  cow's  milk  with  20  to  30 
per  cent  of  water  added,  blood  warm,  administered  with  a  bottle,  at  in- 
tervals of  two  hours.  As  a  rule  a  teaspoon ful  of  sugar  is  added  per 
quart  of  milk,  and  occasionally  from  one  to  three  eggs  may  also  be 
added.  In  the  course  of  two  or  three  weeks  the  whole  milk  is  gradually 
displaced  by  skim  milk  (6  liters),  to  which  should  be  added  1^  liters 
of  pea  soup,  or  broth,  and  ^  liter  of  linseed  tea.  At  the  age  of  four 
weeks  colts  should  have  some  fine  soft  hay  and  even  a  little  crushed 
oats.  The  milk  ration  may  be  withdrawn  entirely  at  the  age  of  4  to  5 
months. 

The  act  of  weaning  is  not  without  a  decided  influence  upon  the  men- 
tal as  well  as  physical  well-being  of  the  colt.  It  should  therefore  be  so 
conducted  that  the  nutrition  and  development  of  the  young  animal  is  in- 
terrupted as  Httle  as  possible.  To  this  end  the  colt  should  be  isolated 
in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  not  be  disturbed  or  made  restless  by  either 
sound  or  sight  of  the  dam.  The  sexes  should  be  separated  at  the  time 
of  weaning  or  at  the  latest  a  few  weeks  thereafter.  Weakly  or  back- 
ward colts  that  are  molested  by  their  companions  should  at  least  be  kept 
in  separate  stalls. 

The  best  place  to  raise  a  colt  is  the  pasture.  Von  Oettingen  recom- 
mends that  yearlings  on  good  pasture  be  given  from  4  to  6  pounds  of 
oats  daily,  and  colts  intended  for  development  into  draft  horses  should 
have  from  6  to  8  pounds,  in  addition  to  green  clover,  alfalfa  or  esparcet. 
Purebred  yearlings  should  receive  from  10  to  12  pounds  of  oats  besides 
green  alfalfa.  The  extra  alfalfa  or  esparcet  is  necessary  only  in  case  of 
shortage  of  grass  in  the  pasture.  With  regard  to  the  modern  tendency 
to  lay  great  stress  upon  the  value  of  "contentedness,"  see  chapter  on 
"Pasture"  in  Klimmer's  Veterinary  Hygiene. 

After  the  pasture  season,  according  to  Von  Oettingen,  half-bloods 
should  receive  6  pounds  of  oats  and  12  pounds  of  hay  as  daily  rations, 
or  8  pounds  of  oats  and  15  to  20  pounds  of  hay,  alfalfa  or  esparcet,  for 
animals  intended  for  draft  purposes. 

Two-year-olds  and  three-year-olds,  according  to  Von  Oettingen,  should 
have,  in  addition  to  pasture,  0  to  2  pounds  of  oats,  draft  horses  4  to  6 
pounds,  in  addition  to  green  alfalfa  or  clover,  and  at  the  end  of  the 


RATIONS  FOR  CALVES  183 

pasture  season  6  pounds  of  oats  and  12  pounds  of  hay. 

A  part  of  the  oat  ration  may  be  displaced  with  peas  (up  to  2  pounds 
daily).     Plenty  of  exercise  should  be  provided. 

High-legged  colts  with  large  heads  should  have  extra  rations  of  oats  in 
order  to  induce  rapid  growth  and  early  maturity  of  the  bones  and  thus 
make  a  more  stocky  form. 

Colts  should  be  haltered  and  tied  when  eating  their  oat  ration.  A 
handful  of  ground  or  roasted  oil  meal  (%  pound  daily)  added  to  the 
ration  is  excellent.  (See  also  article  on  "Pasture"  in  the  author's  work 
on  Veterinary  Hygiene.)  When  changing  from  pasture  or  soiling  crops 
to  hay  (10  pounds  meadow  hay  or  fine  alfalfa  or  clover),  daily  additions 
of  about  6  liters  of  chopped  carrots  for  three  or  four  weeks,  followed 
during  the  entire  winter  with  2  liters  of  wheat  bran  twice  a  week  (mixed 
with  the  oats),  are  recommended.  If  the  hay  is  of  first  quality  the  oat 
ration  may  be  reduced  by  one  pound.  Rock  salt  in  the  form  of  "lick 
stones"  is  suitable  to  supply  the  necessary  sodium  chlorid. 

Every  advantage  should  be  taken  to  utilize  to  the  fullest  extent  any 
available  pasturage.  Stable  feeding  should  then  be  confined  to  the  oat 
ration  at  midday  and  to  the  feeding  of  extra  portions  of  clover  or  al- 
falfa hay  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  On  very  hot  days  the  noon  period 
of  stable  feeding  may  be  prolonged  to  three  hours  and  extra  rations  of 
soiling  crops  provided.  During  the  cold  of  winter  and  the  raw  weather 
of  late  fall  and  early  spring  when  pasturing  is  impracticable  or  impos- 
sible, daily  exercise  should  be  provided  for  1^^  to  2  hours  daily,  under 
shelter  or  in  the  open  according  to  circumstances  and  weather  conditions. 

2.    Rations  for  Calves 

Newborn  calves  should  receive  whole  milk  for  from  three  to  six  weeks, 
up  to  5  quarts  daily,  and  this  should  be  gradually  increased  to  10  quarts, 
the  amount  varying  with  the  type  of  animal  to  be  developed.  For  the 
first  few  days,  in  order  to  prevent  digestive  troubles  (scours),  the  amount 
should  be  considerably  less,  3  pints  daily.  After  this  period  one  pint  may 
be  added  daily  until  the  total  reaches  9  or  10  quarts.  The  exact  amount 
depends  upon  the  live  weight  of  the  animal  and  upon  the  type.  Calves 
of  the  milk-producing  type,  or  males  intended  for  work,  should  have 
from  one-seventh  to  one-eighth  of  their  live  weight  of  whole  milk  daily 
for  about  four,  but  at  least  three,  weeks.  Bull  calves  intended  for 
breeding  purposes  and  calves  intended  for  beef  should  receive  from  one- 
sixth  to  one-fifth  of  their  live  weight  in  the  form  of  whole  milk  for  a 
period  of  about  six  weeks.  For  the  first  week  the  amounts  of  milk  indi- 
cated should  be  divided  into  from  three  to  five  parts  and  fed  as  many 
periods,  after  which  three  feeds  per  day,  carefully  measured  and  regu- 
larly dispensed,  will  suffice.  The  milk  should  be  administered  freshly 
drawn  and  blood  warm.     Cold  milk  is  liable  to  produce  diarrhea. 

Calves  may  be  raised  with  the  dam  or  the  milk  may  be  drawn  by  hand 
and  administered  strictly   fresh  while  still  blood  warm.     Hand   feeding, 


184  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

which  is  practically  confined  to  calves,  has  the  advantage  of  enabling 
the  feeder  to  regulate  the  exact  amount  of  nutriment  taken  (according 
to  purposes  in  view)  ;  the  act  of  weaning  is  simplified,  and  the  total 
yield  of  the  dam  can  be  utilized  to  better  purpose.  It  is  well  known 
that  newborn  animals  rarely  consume  the  entire  milk  yield  of  the  dam. 
Frequently  the  dam  stubbornly  resists  all  attempts  to  remove  the  re- 
mainder, even  repeated  milkings  failing  in  this  attempt.  This  has  an  un- 
favorable effect  upon  the  future  milk  yield.  This  objectionable  feature 
may  be  avoided  by  hand-rearing  the  calves  from  the  beginning. 

It  is  a  simple  matter  to  teach  the  young  calf  to  drink  from  a  pail. 
Gently  forcing  its  mouth  into  the  milk  and  letting  it  suck  a  finger  usually 
starts  it  off  with  little  further  trouble.  Patent  calf-feeders  ofifer  the 
advantage  of  less  trouble  at  the  beginning,  but  are  hard  to  keep  clean 
and  consequently  more  or  less  insanitary.  In  the  end  the  calves  have  to 
be  weaned  from  these,  and  on  the  whole,  the  method  is  not  recommended. 
The  vessels  in  which  the  milk  is  fed  should  be  so  constructed  as  to 
facilitate  cleaning.  Enameled  ware  is  the  best.  Wooden  vessels  are  ob- 
jectionable for  evident  reasons.  The  vessels  may  be  set  in  specially  con- 
structed frames  to  prevent  upsetting. 

Veal  calves  are  more  commonly  raised  on  the  dam,  this  being  attended 
with  less  trouble  than  hand  feeding.  They  should  be  permitted  to  suck 
three,  four,  or  better,  five  times  a  day,  at  regular  intervals.  Between 
meals  they  should  be  kept  tied  up  short,  or  confined  in  narrow  stalls. 
The  enforced  rest  favors  fat  accumulation.  On  the  other  hand,  calves 
intended  for  breeding  or  dairy  purposes  should  have  abundant  opportu- 
nity for  exercise. 

Calves  intended  for  hand  raising  had  best  be  removed  from  the  pres- 
ence of  the  dam  at  once,  before  the  latter  has  had  an  opportunity  to  lick 
them.  They  should  be  placed  in  a  warm,  clean,  well-bedded  stall,  free 
from  draft,  rubbed  dry  with  a  handful  of  dry,  soft  straw  gently  manipu- 
lated, and  the  mouth  and  nostrils  wiped  clean  of  mucus. 

The  production  value  of  10  liters  of  milk  (about  10  quarts,  equal  to 
1.2  kg.  milk  dry  matter)  if  properly  administered  amounts  to  1  kg.  in- 
crease in  live  weight. 

At  the  age  of  from  3  to  6  weeks  the  whole  milk  ration  is  withdrawn. 
This  must  be  done  gradually  in  order  to  avoid  a  sudden  interruption  of 
development.  The  best  substitute  for  whole  milk  is  sweet,  boiled,  luke- 
warm skim  milk,  which  may  be  supplied  by  adding  2/3  to  1  pint  to  the 
daily  whole-milk  ration,  a  proportionate  amount  of  whole  milk  being  de- 
ducted from  day  to  day. 

The  resulting  loss  of  fat  may  be  replaced  at  first  with  crushed  flax- 
seed or  oatmeal  (25  to  30  gm.  for  each  pint  of  skim  milk).  Wilsdorf 
recommends  as  a  substitute  for  the  milk  fat  the  addition  of  from  2  to  4 
per  cent  of  finely  emulsified  fat  of  animal  or  vegetable  origin. 

Pigs  as  well  as  calves  are  said  to  have  thrived  much  better  after  feed- 
ing on  "homogenized"  fat  and  skim  milk  than  when  fed  in  the  usual  man- 


RATIONS  FOR  CALVES 


185 


ner  with  skim  milk  and  flaxseed  meal,  oats,  barley,  etc.  Peanut  oil,  cocoa- 
nut  oil  and  oleomargarin  were  used  as  the  sources  of  the  homogenized 
fat.  On  the  other  hand  Podbieski  observed  that  fat  of  this  character  is 
excreted  after  a  brief  time  and  that  pigs  and  calves  thus  fed  did  not 
thrive  properly. 

Schuppli  recommends  for  economic  reasons  that  calves  be  started 
on  "vegetable  fat-emulsion  milk"  at  the  end  of  the  second  or  third  week. 
Vegetable  fat-emulsion  milk  consists  of  skim  milk  with  3.5  per  cent  of 
emulsified  vegetable  fat  (e.  g.,  palmatin).  Special  machines  for  making 
these  emulsions  are  on  the  market  and  can  also  be  used  as  centrifuges. 
Only  one-fifth  of  the  milk  to  be  emulsified  need  be  run  through  the  emul- 
sifier.  Both  milk  and  fat  should  be  at  a  temperature  of  140°  F.  The 
product  thus  obtained  is  diluted  by  the  addition  of  four  parts  of  skim 
milk.  The  emulsion  must  be  freshly  prepared  for  each  feed  and  cooled  to 
95 — 105°  F.  before  feeding.  After  a  certain  time  the  emulsion  milk  is  re- 
placed by  skim  milk. 

Schuppli  suggests  the  following  table. as  an  outline  of  procedure: 


Bull  calf 

per  day 

Heifer  calf  per  day 

No.  of 

Milk  from  Whole  Emulsion 

Skim 

Xo.  of  Milk  from  Whole  Emulsion    Skii 

Days 

Dam 

Milk 

Milk 

Milk 

Days 

Dam 

Milk        Milk        M 

il 

10 

6 

10 

5 

7 

"l 

7 

6 

2 

7 

i 

2 

6              1 

2 

7 

2 

2 

5             2 

2 

6 

3 

2 

4             3 

2 

5 

4 

2 

3             4 

2 

4 

5 

2 

2             5 

2 

3 

6 

2 

2             6 

2 

2 

7 

2 

1              7 

2 

1 

8 

14 

8 

14 

9 

14 

6 

2 

28 

10 

14 

5 

3 

35 

8 

2 

14 

3 

5 

14 

7 

3 

14 

2 

6 

14 

5 

4 

14 

8 

14 

3 

5 

14 

6 

14 

2 

6 

14 

. 

4 

14 

8 

7 

2 

21 

6 

21 

4 

150 

222 

After  the  eighth  day  a  little  hay  is  given  following  the  milk.  While 
the  milk  is  being  reduced  in  quantity,  a  little  water  should  be  given  after 
the  hay,  1^  quarts  of  water  for  each  quart  of  milk  deducted.  Twice  a 
week  10  to  12  grams  (a  little  more  than  one-third  of  an  ounce)  of  salt 
should  be  given.  When  the  calves  are  put  on  pasture  the  hay  ration  is 
decreased.    In  wet,  cold  weather  the  hay  ration  is  increased. 

Later  on,  linseed  cake  may  be  added  to  the  ration,  or  other  oil  cakes 
like  palmseed,  cocoanut  and  peanut.  Rapeseed  cake  and  cottonseed  cake, 
however,  should  be  avoided.     Barley,  pea  meal,  bran  and  malt  sprouts 


186  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

may  gradually  be  introduced  in  the  form  of  gruels  or  soups  until  they 
completely  displace  the  skim  milk.  By  the  time  the  whole  milk  is  en- 
tirely withdrawn  concentrates  of  the  above  character  should  amount  to 
one  pound  daily  in  addition  to  5  grams  of  phosphate  of  lime  or  pre- 
pared chalk.  By  the  time  that  the  skim  milk  also  is  entirely  withdrawn 
(at  age  of  6  months)  the  concentrates  should  amount  to  3  pounds  per 
day  for  heifers  and  4  pounds  per  day  for  bull  calves. 

As  with  all  other  animals  calves  should  not  be  fed  according  to  gen- 
eral rules  but  rather  according  to  individual  requirements.  General 
rules,  of  course,  are  useful  as  guides,  but  should  not  be  closely  adhered 
to.  It  would  be  a  serious  mistake  to  feed  a  stunted  calf  less  merely  be- 
cause it  was  lighter  in  weight.  On  the  contrary,  such  an  animal  would 
require  additional  nourishment  to  enable  it  to  make  up  for  past  losses. 

In  order  to  increase  the  digestibility  and  availability  of  starchy  feed- 
ing stuffs  it  has  been  suggested  that  they  be  treated  with  diastase  (dias- 
tosolin)  or  with  barley  malt  (which  is  more  economical)  and  thus  con- 
vert the  starch  into  sugar.  Animals  eat  "saccharified"  starch  readily 
and  utihze  it  to  good  advantage.  Compared  with  milk  it  reduces  the 
cost  of  calf  feeding  about  33  per  cent. 

Probst  recommends  a  mixture  composed  of  65  parts  of  wheat  meal, 
30  parts  of  coarsely  ground  linseed  (flaxseed)  and  5  parts  of  barley 
malt  meal.  One  pound  of  this  mixture  is  added  to  9  liters  of  skim 
milk.  In  the  absence  of  skim  milk,  the  same  author  recommends  the 
following!  40  parts  wheat  flour,  25  parts  coarsely  ground  flaxseed,  10 
parts  each  of  peanut,  cocoanut  and  palm  seed  meal  and  5  parts  of  malt 
meal,  3  pounds  per  calf  per  day. 

The  objection  to  saccharified  starch,  according  to  Pflugradt  and  Gut- 
brod,  is  that  its  preparation  involves  too  much  trouble  and  loss  of  time. 
While  saccharified  skim  milk  has  been  recommended  for  calves  from  the 
time  they  are  a  few  days  old,  the  author  is  of  the  opinion  that  some  whole 
milk  is  practically  indispensible  for  the  first  4  to  6  weeks.  Saccharified 
milk  is  hardly  to  be  recommended  as  the  basal  feed  except  under  special 
circumstances  or  for  more  mature  calves. 

At  the  age  of  6  months  skim  milk  may  gradually  be  displaced  entirely 
by  buttermilk  or  sour  milk.  When  a  week  old,  calves  should  have  access 
to  a  little  soft,  fine  meadow  hay  so  that  they  can  gradually  become  ac- 
customed to  solid  food.  The  amount  of  hay  can  be  increased  gradually 
to  from  2  to  4  pounds  per  day.  By  the  end  of  the  first  month  thoroughly 
crushed  beets  or  carrots  mixed  with  chaffed  straw,  crushed  oats  or  corsely 
ground  peas  or  barley,  oil  meal,  malt  sprouts  and  sweet  grasses  (no 
clover)  may  be  given.  In  the  marsh  districts  of  Germany  coarsely  ground 
beans  are  a  favorite  supplementary  or  "by-feed"  for  calves.  Distillery 
slops,  brewers'  grains,  beet  pulp  (unless  dried)  rapeseed  cake  and  cotton- 
seed cake  should  be  avoided  for  young  calves. 

The  temperature  of  the  milk  or  fluid  substances  may  be  gradually  low- 
ered upon  the  approach  of  warm  weather. 


RATIONS  FOR  GROWING  CATTLE  187 

At  6  to  8  weeks,  or  even  before,  the  best  place  for  calves  is  on  a  good 
pasture.  It  goes  without  saying  that  there  should  be  an  ample  supply  of 
grass. 

To  enable  the  feeder  to  regulate  the  food  supply  in  a  rational  and 
profitable  manner,  young  growing  animals  should  be  weighed  from  time 
to  time.  Whether  or  not  additional  concentrates  should  be  given  when 
animals  are  on  pasture  depends  upon  conditions.  If  the  pasture  is  good 
and  the  food  supply  abundant,  the  addition  of  concentrates  is  not  only 
unnecesary  but  adds  to  the  cost  of  keep  without  giving  adequate  returns. 
Not  only  this,  but  it  actually  spoils  the  disposition  of  animals  to  such  as 
extent  that  they  no  longer  profitably  utilize  the  farm  grown  crops,  espe- 
cially the  forages,  and  demand  continued  rations  of  expensive  concen- 
trates. 

Between  the  fourth  and  sixth  months  the  beet  and  dry  roughage  ra- 
tions may  be  increased,  and  the  concentrates  increased  to  3  or  4  pounds 
for  heifers  and  4  to  8  pounds  for  bulls.  In  certain  districts  calves  that 
are  fed  for  market  are  given  as  high  as  10  to  12  pounds  of  concentrates 
per  day. 

After  the  first  year  calves  may  be  fed  in  the  same  manner  as  mature 
animals.  The  future  purpose  of  the  animal  should,  however,  never  be 
left  out  of  mind.  While  future  dairy  and  breeding  stock  should  be  well 
nourished,  it  should  not  be  fattened.  Animals  intended  for  slaughter 
should  receive  heavier  rations.  General  hints  for  feeding  this  class  of 
animals  are  furnished  by  Kellner's  tables  on  page  165. 

In  view  of  the  delicate  and  sensitive  structure  of  the  organs  of  young 
animals  special  importance  should  be  attached  to  the  question  of  pro- 
viding faultless  feeding  stufifs.  With  reference  to  mineral  nutrients,  see 
page  154,  etc.  The  following  rations  are  practical  in  themselves  and  will 
serve  as  guides  for  the  construction  of  others. 

Rations  for  Growing  Cattle,  Dairy  Breeds  (Daily  Rations  per  Head) 

A.  Age,  2  to  3  Months.    Average  Live  Weight,  140  Pounds 

1.  2.  3. 

Skim  milk 8.0    lbs.  Pea  meal  1.0  lb.  Coarsely  ground 

Meadow  hay  I. .  .2.0   lbs.  Meadow  hav  I 2.5  lbs.  barley   1.5  lbs. 

Oats 1.0   lb.  Rice  feed  meal.... 0.5  lb.  Meadow  hay  I. ..  .2.0  lbs. 

Peanut  oil   0.161b.  Flaxseed 0.5  lb.  Pea  meal  1.01b. 

Flaxseed 0.6  lb. 

B.  Age,  3  to  6  Months.     Average  Live  Weight,  280  Pounds 

1.  2.  3. 

Meadow  hay  I.. .  .4.0  lbs.  Meadow  hay  I 4.0  lbs.  Meadow  hav  I  . .  .4.0  lbs 

Oats    2.0  lbs.  Oats    2.0  lbs.  Beets  ' 6.0  lbs 

Rye  bran   1.01b.  Malt  sprouts 1.01b.  Rice   feed  meal. .  .2.0 lbs 

Flaxseed    1.61b.  Linseed  cake 1.4  lbs.  Palmseed  cake  ..  .2.0  lbs. 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 
C.    Age,  6  to  12  Months.    Average  Live  Weight,  460  Pounds 


1. 

Beets  8.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II. .  .6.0  lbs. 
Spring  cereal 

straw    4.0  lbs. 

Oat  chaff 2.0  lbs. 

Malt  sprouts 1.01b. 

Peanut  cake   0.51b. 


Potatoes  6.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II... 8.0 lbs. 
Spring  cereal 

straw 4.0  lbs. 

Rape  cake  1.5  lbs. 


3. 
Meadow  hay  II. .  .6.0  lbs. 

Clover  hay  4.0  lbs. 

Spring  cereal 

straw    2.0  lbs. 

Coarsely  ground 

barley  meal 4.0  lbs. 


D.     Age,  12  to  18  Months.     Average  Live  Weight,  640  Pounds 


Potatoes  18.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II..  8.0 lbs. 

Oat  straw  8.0  lbs. 

Rape  cake  2.0  lbs. 


Beets  

.10.0  lbs. 

Potato  waste  . . . 

.40.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II. 

.  8.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II. 

.  8.0  lbs. 

Spring  cereal 

Winter  cereal 

straw 

.  8.0  lbs. 

straw    

.  8.0  lbs. 

Rape  cake 

.  2.0  lbs. 

Malt  sprouts  . . . 

.  0.51b. 

Oat  feed  meal... 

.  1.01b. 

Rations  for  Growing 

A.  Age,  2  to  3 
1. 

Whole  milk 6.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  I 2.0  lbs. 

Oats    1.01b. 

Flaxseed    0.61b. 

B.  Age,  3  to  6  Months.    Average  Live  Weight,  300  Pounds 
1. 

Meadow  hay  I 4.0  lbs. 

Oats    2.0  lbs. 

Rye   bran    2.0  lbs. 

Linseed  cake 1.0  lb. 


Cattle,  Beef  Breeds  (Daily  Rations  per  Head) 
Months.    Average  Live  Weight,  150  Pounds  ♦ 

2.  3. 

Whole  milk 8.0   lbs.         Whole  milk 6.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  I. ..2.0   lbs.         Meadow  hay  I 2.0  lbs. 

Peanut  cake 0.5   lb.  Pea  meal  1.5  lbs. 

Rye  feed  meal..  .0.66  lb. 


Carrots  6.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  I 5.0  lbs. 

Palmseed  cake  . .  .2.0  lbs. 
Linseed  cake 1.01b. 


Beets  6.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  I — 6.0  lbs. 

Malt  sprouts 1.01b. 

Oats    1.01b, 

Linseed  cake 0.51b. 


C.    Age,  6  to  12  Months.    Average  Live  Weight,  460  Pounds 


1. 

Beets    8.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  1 1...  8.0  lbs. 
Spring  cereal 

straw    4.0  lbs. 

Palmseed  cake  ...  1.0  lb. 
Linseed  cake   2.0  lbs. 


Ensilaged  beet 

pulp    20.00  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II.  8.00  lbs. 
Spring  cereal 

straw    4.00  lbs. 

Oats    2.00  lbs. 

Sesame  cake  ...  1.00  lb. 
Flaxseed    0.26  lbs. 


Potatoes    6.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II. .  .6.0  lbs. 
Pea  or  bean 

straw    4.0  lbs. 

Oats    1.01b. 

Linseed  cake    2.0  lbs. 

Rice  feed  meal ...  1.5  lbs. 


D.    Age,  12  to  18  Months.    Average  Live  Weight,  680  Pounds 

Clover  hay  4.0  lbs. 

Pea  or  bean 

hay    2.0  lbs. 

Spring  cereal 

straw    2.0  lbs. 

Oats    2.0  lbs. 

Rapeseed  cake  ...2.0 lbs. 
Barley  feed  meal.  .1.01b. 


1. 

Meadow  hay   II. 

8.0  lbs. 

Beets    

.20.0  lbs. 

Spring  cereal 

Meadow  hay  II. 

.  6.0  lbs. 

straw    

,  6.0  lbs. 

Pea  or  bean 

Oats    

,  2.0  lbs. 

hay    

.  6.0  lbs. 

Malt  sprouts 

.  1.01b. 

Winter  cereal 

Palmseed  cake  . . 

,   1.01b. 

straw    

.  4.0  lbs. 

Sesame  cake    . . . 

,  0.51b. 

Rape  cake  

.  2.0  lbs. 

3, 
Potatoes    



2. 

Ensilaged  beet 

..8.0  lbs. 

pulp    

.20.0  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II. . 

,.4.0  lbs. 

3.    Rations  for  Lambs 

~For  the  first  three  or  four  weeks  the  food  for  lambs  consists  exclus- 
ively of  the  mother's  milk.     For  breeding  stock  this  period  should  be 


RATIONS  FOR  GROWING  SHEEP  189 

extended  to  from  10  to  14  weeks.  After  this,  for  a  period  of  from  6  to 
8  weeks  they  are  permitted  access  to  the  dam  during  the  day  only.  At 
first  they  should  be  permitted  to  suck  several  times  a  day,  then  twice  a 
day  and  finally  only  once  a  day.  During  the  weaning  period  they  should 
have  tender  meadow  hay,  soon  followed  with  crushed  oats,  and  later, 
cracked  peas,  linseed,  palmseed  or  peanut  meal  and  fresh,  pure  water, 
not  too  cold.  Like  all  young  stock,  lambs  thrive  best  in  mild  weather 
on  pasture.  But  this  change  also  should  be  made  gradually  and  light 
feeds  of  hay  and  grain  continued. 

The  daily  feed  requirements  per  100  head  in  the  weaning  period  con- 
sist of  from  40  to  60  pounds  of  hay  and  from  12  to  20  pounds  of  oats ; 
after  weaning  and  until  the  age  of  one  year,  100  pounds  of  hay  and  20 
to  40  pounds  of  grain.  During  the  second  year,  100  to  150  pounds  of 
hay,  20  to  30  pounds  of  grain  and  some  beets  as  a  by-feed  and  straw  to 
provide  bulk.  Slops  and  watery  waste  products  may  be  used  as  supple- 
mentary feeds  in  small  quantities  at  the  most.  The  character  of  feed 
suggested  will  give  a  sufficient  supply  of  salts  or  mineral  matter.  How- 
ever, when  the  hay  is  displaced  with  straw  and  the  grain  feed  with  poor- 
grade  by-products,  additional  mineral  matter,  as  suggested  on  pages  155 
etc.,  is  absolutely  essential.  In  regard  to  standard  nutrient  requirement 
see  page  165, 

Rations  for  Growing  Sheep,  Mutton  Breeds 
(Daily  Ration  per  100  Head) 

A.  Age,  4  to  6  Months.     Average  Live  Weight,  60  Pounds  • 

1.  2. 

Meadow  hay  I  90  lbs.       Beets   150  lbs. 

Young  clover  hay 20  lbs.       Young  meadow  hav  40  lbs. 

Oats     30  lbs.       Clover  hay    40  lbs. 

Peas    30  lbs.      Oats 40  lbs. 

Linseed  cake  20  lbs.      Corn 30  lbs. 

Peanut  cake    10  lbs.      Linseed  cake  16  lbs. 

Peanut  cake    20  lbs. 

B.  Age,  6  to  8  Months.     Average  Live  Weight,  76  Pounds 

1.  2. 

Beets  200  lbs.  Potatoes   150  lbs. 

Young  meadow  hay   60  lbs.  Young  meadow  hay 60  lbs. 

Clover  hay 40  lbs.  Bean  or  pea  hay  20  lbs. 

Corn    30  lbs.  Cracked  beans    20  lbs. 

Barley  feed  meal  20  lbs.  Linseed  cake 30  lbs. 

Coarse  wheat  bran   40  lbs.  Wheat  feed  meal  20  lbs. 

Peanut  cake   20  lbs. 

C.  Age,  8  to  11  Months.     Average  Live  Weight,  92  Pounds 

1.  2. 

Ensilaged  beet  pulp   200  lbs.  Potatoes   100  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II  100  lbs.  Meadow  hay  II  100  lbs. 

Bean  or  pea  hay  40  lbs.  Pea  or  bean  hay 40  lbs. 

Oat  chaff  20  lbs.  Rapeseed  cake   30  lbs. 

Linseed  cake  30  lbs.  Corn    40  lbs. 

Rapeseed  cake    30  lbs.  Palmseed  cake  20  lbs. 

Rve  feed  meal   20  lbs.  Peanut  cake   10  lbs. 

Wheat  feed  meal 20  lbs. 


190 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


4.    Rations  for  Pigs 

During  the  first  month  after  birth  the  food  for  pigs  should  consist  of 
the  milk  of  the  dam.  For  pigs  intended  for  early  market  this  period 
should  be  extended  to  two  months,  and  to  ten  weeks  for  weakly  individ- 
uals. If  the  milk  of  the  dam  is  insufficient,  a  common  practice  in  Ger- 
many is  to  provide  a  goat  for  wet  nurse  (Fig.  87),  care  being  observed 
to  select  one  adapted  for  the  purpose  (low  hanging  udder).  Bottle 
feeding  is  also  practiced  under  such  circumstances. 

As  soon  as  the  pigs  show  a  tendency  to  gnaw  foreign  objects,  which 
usually  occurs  at  the  age  of  two  of  three  weeks,  they  should  have 
crushed  oats  or  whole  wheat  or  barley,  and  this  should  be  followed  later 
with  cracked  peas  and  beans.  In  addition  they  should  have  access  to  pre- 
pared chalk,   (one-third  ounce  per  head  per  day),  as  well  as  soft  coal, 


om   Landwirtschaftliche  Zeitung.) 


earth,  sand,  pitch,  wood  ashes,  bone  meal  or  charcoal.  The  lime  con- 
taining materials  favor  bone  development,  while  the  other  substances 
stimulate  digestive  activity,  thus  favoring  feed  utilization  and  effecting 
an  actual  saving  of  feed.  According  to  trials  at  the  Wisconsin  Experi- 
ment Station  the  saving  thus  affected  amounts  to  as  much  as  28  per  cent. 
By  the  end  of  the  third  or  fourth  week  the  milk  of  the  dam  may  be 
displaced  to  the  extent  of  one-half  with  cow's  milk.  The  latter  should 
be  fresh,  warm,  and  slightly  diluted  with  water.  Later  on  skim  milk,  thin 
gruels,  etc.,  may  be  gradually  substituted.  The  latter  should  be  given 
sparingly  at  first,  one-quarter  of  a  pint,  and  gradually  increased  to  1 
quart.  According  to  Klein,  saccharification  of  the  starchy  gruels  which 
are  gradually  substituted  for  the  milk  (pp.  33  and  186)  is  not  followed 
by  better  assimilation  in  pigs,  as  is  the  case  with  calves.  As  they  become 
accustomed  to  solid  food  the  pigs  are  gradually  weaned.    They  are  sepa- 


RATIONS  FOR  PIGS  191 

rated  from  the  sows  and  the  intervals  between  nursings  are  lengthened 
from  time  to  time. 

Pigs  intended  for  breeding  purposes  should  have  chopped  beets  by  the 
time  they  are  three  months  of  age,  or  cooked  or  steamed  potatoes,  dried 
potatoes,  ground  corn  and  tender  green  feed,  especially  red  clover.  The 
males  should  have  somewhat  more  nitrogenous  food  than  the  females. 
One  hectare  of  clover  furnishes  sufficient  pasture  for  25  to  40  shoats 
(one  acre  for  10  to  16  shoats).  Soil  and  weather  conditions  must  of 
course  be  suitable.  Stubble  fields  and  potato  and  beet  fields,  after  the 
main  crop  has  been  harvested,  are  also  suitable  runs  for  young  pigs.  In 
addition  to  the  latter,  extra  rations  should  of  course  be  supplied.  A  mere 
run  for  young  pigs  is  only  a  makeshift. 

Young  pregnant  sows  should  have  gradually  increased  rations  of 
ground  oats  or  barley,  and  later  on,  especially  after  farrowing,  they 
should  have  wheat  bran  and  linseed  cake. 

The  following  table  contains  hints  for  combinations  of  feeding  stuffs 
suitable  for  breeding  stock.  They  are  based  on  1,000  pounds  live  weight. 
The  values  in  parentheses  apply  to  fattening  pigs  of  early  maturity. 

Digestible 
Age  in  Months  Live  Weight     Dry  Matter        Albumen        Fat      Carbohydrates 

pounds  pounds  pounds      pounds         pounds 

2  to    3 40(40)  44(44)  6.2(6.2)    1.0(1.0)     28.0(28.0) 

3  to    5 80(90)  36(36)  4.0(4.5)    0.8(0.9)     23.5(24.0) 

5  to    6 120(130)  32(32)  3.0(3.5)    0.5(0.7)     21.0(22.0) 

6  to    8 160(180)  28(28)  2.3(3.0)    0.3(0.5)     19.0(20.0) 

9  to  12 240(270)  25(25)  1.7(2.5)    0.2(0.3)     15.0(19.0) 

Since  most  of  the  feeding  stuffs  commonly  fed  to  swine  are  deficient 
in  lime  (potatoes,  beets,  grains),  it  is  advisable  to  give  daily  rations  of 
from  one-sixth  to  one-third  of  an  ounce  of  prepared  chalk,  and  in  case 
of  phosphorus  deficiency,  like  abount  of  precipitated  calcium  phosphate. 

Pigs  intended  for  fattening  at  the  age  of  6  months  should  have  more 
proteids  from  the  beginning  than  breeding  stock  (for  nutrient  standards 
see  p.  165).  If  it  is  not  intended  to  fatten  the  pigs  until  they  are  mature 
(12  to  18  months)  they  should  have  rations  with  somewhat  less  protein, 
in  the  form  of  whey,  wheat  bran,  feed  meal,  corn,  beet  pulp,  distillery 
slops,  chaff  and  soiling  crops,  unless  for  some  reason  it  is  preferred  to 
give  the  run  of  a  pasture. 

For  intensive  feeding  of  growing  pigs,  easily  digestible,  highly  avail- 
able feeding  stuffs,  like  cracked  grains  and  leguminous  seeds,  feed  meals, 
potatoes,  meat  meal,  blood  meal  and  fish  meal,  creamery  by-products, 
etc.,  are  necessary.  The  more  digestible  the  feed  and  the  more  avail- 
able the  nutrients,  the  more  rapidly  will  the  animals  accumulate  muscle 
and  fat.  Special  care  is  necessary  in  the  selection  of  the  proper  feeding 
stuffs  for  the  last  7  or  8  weeks  of  the  fattening  period.  The  consump- 
tion of  large  quantities  of  feeding  stuffs  rich  in  the  various  oils  and  fats 


192  THE   SCIENTIFIC   FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

(corn,  rice  feed  meal,  tish  meal,  certain  oil  cakes,  etc.)  has  a  tendency  to 
produce  soft,  oily,  bacon  (p.  153).  These  objections  inay  be  overcome 
by  limiting  the  fatty  and  oily  feeding  stufifs  to  one-third  of  the  total  con- 
centrates, or  better  still  displacing  them  entirely  with  barley,  or  by  adjust- 
ing or  counteracting  their  effect  with  feeds  of  an  opposite  character  like 
palmseed  cake  and  cocoanut  cake. 

When  feeding  heavily  with  Indian  corn  the  substitution  of  palmseed 
meal  for  one-fifth  of  the  corn  ration  has  proved  very  effective.  The 
quantity  of  watery  or  succulent  feeding  stufifs  like  beets,  beet  pulp,  the 
by-products  of  starch  manufacture  and  distilleries,  creamery  by-products, 
etc.,  should  be  limited  during  the  last  four  or  five  weeks  of  the  fattening 
period.  In  any  event,  swine  should  not  have  food  that  is  too  watery. 
They  should  not  be  fed  on  thin  slops  exclusively. 

Potatoes  should  be  cooked  or  steamed  for  swine.  Hard  grains  and 
chaff,  as  well  as  creamery  by-products,  distillery  slops,  etc.,  not  strictly 
fresh,  and  all  feeding  stuffs  of  a  suspicious  nature  which  are  liable  to 
contain  bacteria  in  large  numbers,  should  also  be  steamed  or  cooked 
before  feeding.  These  materials  should  be  administered  in  the  form  of  a 
thick,  warm  gruel.  If  slops  are  used,  excessive  dilution  should  be  avoid- 
ed. Grains  should  be  fed  either  coarsely  ground  or  rolled  or  crushed, 
but  not  cooked.  The  daily  ration  should  be  distributed  over  three  regu- 
larly observed  feeding  periods.  Troughs  and  all  utensils  should  be  kept 
scrupulously  clean. 

Rations  for  Growing,  Fattening  Pigs 
(Daily  Ration  per  10  Head) 

A.  Age,  2  to  3  Months.     Average  Live  Weight,  40  Pounds 

1.  2. 

Skim  milk   40  lbs.       Whole  milk  30  lbs. 

Crushed  barley  8  lbs.       Ground  barley    8  lbs. 

Corn    41bs.      Peas    61bs. 

Peas    4  lbs.      Rye  bran   2  lbs. 

B.  Age  3  to  5  Months.     Average  Live  Weight,  100  Pounds 

1.  2. 

Skim  milk  60 lbs.  Potatoes   SOlbs. 

Potatoes  60  lbs.  Pea  meal   12  lbs. 

Rye  bran    5  lbs.  Barley  feed  meal 10  lbs. 

Corn    5  lbs.  Meat  meal  (tankage)   1  lb. 

Ground  barley   6  lbs. 

C.  Age,  5  to  6  Months.     Average  Live  Weight,  130  Pounds 

1.  2. 

Skim  milk   80  lbs.       Beets     60  lbs. 

Potatoes   100  lbs.       Potatoes     60  lbs. 

Rye  bran   8  lbs.       Pea   meal    8  lbs. 

Rice  feed  meal  4  lbs.       Rye  bran   10  lbs. 

Barley  feed  meal  6  lbs. 

Peanut  cake   2  lbs. 


FATTENING  RATIONS  FOR  MATURE  ANIMALS  193 

D.    Age,  6  to  8  Months.     Average  Live  Weight,  180  Pounds 

1.  2. 

Skim  milk  80  lbs.       Beets  100  lbs. 

Potatoes 150  lbs.       Potatoes   80  lbs. 

Rye  bran   10  lbs.       Ground  peas  10  lbs. 

Barley  feed  meal  10  lbs. 

Rye  meal   4  lbs. 

Peanut  cake   2  lbs. 

Rations  for  Nursing  Sows.    (Per  Day  per  Head) 

Approximate  Live  Weight  300  Pounds,  With  8  Pigs  More  or  Less 
1.  2. 

Potatoes   61bs.       Skim  milk   lOlbs. 

Oats    2  lbs.       Potatoes  8  lbs. 

Rye  bran   2  lbs.       Barley     3  lbs. 

Peas    2  lbs.       Linseed  cake  1  lb. 

3.  4. 

Sour  milk   12  lbs.      Beets   16  lbs. 

Dry  beet  pulp  4  lbs.       Corn    3  lbs. 

Barley     2  lbs.      Oat  chaff  1  lb. 

Palmseed  cake   1  lb.        Sesame  cake   1  lb. 

Rice  feed  meal  1  lb. 

IV.    Fattening  Rations  for  Mature  Animals 

The  fattening  of  mature  animals  is  mainly  a  matter  of  putting  on  so 
much  fat  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  consistent  with  health.  The 
addition  of  flesh  is  insignificant.  In  young  or  growing  animals,  how- 
ever, as  well  as  in  animals  that  are  run  down  in  condition  from  overwork 
or  starvation,  flesh  or  muscle  production  is  desired  and  is  attained  by  ad- 
ministering feeds  with  higher  protein  content.  It  is  necessary  that  the 
muscle  tissue  be  well  developed  so  as  to  form  a  basis  for  the  accumula- 
tion and  deposit  of  fat.  Fattening  rations  for  mature  emaciated  or  lean 
animals  should  be  preceded  by  a  preparatory  feeding  period  of  from  two 
to  four  weeks  during  which  animals  should  receive  from  12  to  15  pounds 
of  digestible  nutrients  daily  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  albumen  ratio 
1 :6.  This  ratio  is  gradually  widened  until  the  desired  fattening  ration 
is  obtained.  The  change  from  the  narrow  to  the  wide  ration  should  ex- 
tend over  a  period  of  about  one  week,  the  last  week  of  the  preparatory 
period. 

The  chief  fat-forming  feeds  in  use  for  this  purpose  are  the  cheaper 
carbohydrates.  One  hundred  grams  of  digestible,  fully  available  carbo- 
hydrates will,  under  favorable  conditions,  produce  24.8  grams  of  body 
fat.  The  fat  nutrients  contained  in  the  feed,  and  which  are  capable  of 
producing  2.2  times  as  much  animal  fat  in  the  ox  as  the  same  weight  of 
starch,  can  not,  however,  be  administered  in  quantities  exceeding  cer- 
tain limits  without  seriously  affecting  the  appetite  and  digestion.  The 
outside  limit  of  fat  in  a  fattening  ration,  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  is 
from  one-third  to  one-half  pound.  Emulsified  fat  is  less  injurious.  The 
best  way  to  administer  fat  is  in  the  form  in  which  it  occurs  naturally  in 
oil  seeds,  oil  cakes,  etc.    Even  in  this  form  0.7  to  0.8  and  exceptionally 


194  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

as  much  as  1  pound  constitute  the  maximum  that  can  be  administered 
daily  without  harm. 

As  already  indicated,  it  is  possible  to  influence  the  character  of  the  fat 
formed  in  the  body  by  proper  selection  of  the  food  fats.  Practical  ex- 
perience as  well  as  scientific  investigations  have  shown  that  carbonaceous 
grains,  poor  in  fat  (rye,  barley,  peas,  beans,  lentils)  potatoes,  beets  and 
palmseed,  cocoanut  and  cottonseed  cake  produce  fat  of  a  high  melting 
point  in  cattle  and  swine;  in  other  words,  hard  lard  and  tallow.  On  the 
other  hand,  sunflower  seed  cake,  flaxseed  cake  and  rapeseed  cake,  corn, 
oats,  wheat,  bran,  rice  feed  meal,  as  well  as  tankage  and  fish  meal,  pro- 
duce fat  of  a  low  melting  point;  in  other  words,  soft  or  flabby  fat.  Thus 
the  character  and  quality  of  pork  is  improved  by  the  former,  while  the 
quality  of  beef  is  improved  by  the  latter  group  of  feed  concentrates. 

Expensive  albumen  nutrients  do  not  enter  into  fattening  rations  to  any 
extent.  The  cheaper  carbonaceous  feeding  stuffs  cannot  be  surpassed  as 
fattening  feeds.  The  albumens  do  not  even  indirectly  influence  fat  for- 
mation from  the  carbohydrates.  It  is  necessary  merely  to  provide  sutft- 
cient  albumen  to  prevent  loss  of  the  albuminous  tissues  already  present 
in  the  body.  Feed  combinations  with  ratios  of  1  :  10-12  are  amply  suffi- 
cient for  this  purpose.  On  the  other  hand,  when  large  amounts  of  albu- 
minous feeds  are  at  our  disposal  without  extra  or  excessive  cost  the  ratio 
may  be  contracted  to  1 :4  without  any  fear  that  the  success  of  our  efforts 
will  be  interfered  with. 

As  Rubner  and  Kellner  have  pointed  out,  the  deposit  of  fat  will  pro- 
ceed at  a  rate  proportional  to  the  excess  of  the  additional  albumen ;  viz., 
1  kg.  of  digested  starch  will  produce  248  gm.  of  fat  (=  56.4  per  cent 
of  the  heat  that  was  stored  up  in  the  digested  nutrient),  1  kg.  of  digested 
crude  fiber  will  produce  253  gm.  of  fat  {=  57  per  cent),  1  kg.  cane 
sugar  produces  188  gb.  (=  45.2  per  cent),  1  kg.  of  albumen  235  gm. 
(=  38.7  per  cent),  and  1  kg.  fat  474  to  598  gm.  (=  64.4  per  cent)  of 
fat  in  the  ox.  Swine  utilize  the  productive  portion  of  the  digested  food 
to  the  extent  of  20  to  25  per  cent  above  that  utilized  by  the  ox.  The 
statement  made  above  that  "the  deposit  of  fat  will  proceed  at  a  rate  pro- 
portional to  the  excess  of  the  additional  albumen"  must  of  course  be 
interpreted  with  limitation.  When  the  total  nutriment  taken  up  is  ex- 
cessive, the  digestive  functions  become  abnormal  and  the  rule  laid  down 
ceases  to  apply. 

1.  Fattening  rations  for  mature  ruminants,  according  to  Kellner,  un- 
der ordinary  conditions  should  contain,  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight, 
per  head  and  per  day,  the  following: 

1.6  pounds  digestible  albumen  (2.0  pounds  for  2-3  year  olds),  0.7 
pounds  digestible  fat,  13-16.0  pounds  digestible  carbohydrates  (nitrogen- 
free  extract  and  crude  fiber),  24-32  pounds  of  dry  matter,  12.5-14.5 
pounds  starch  value,  1 :10-12  nutritive  ratio. 

In  constructing  feeding  rations,  the  dally  amount  of  hay  and  straw 
which  the  available  supply  will  permit  for  each  animal  (12  to  15  pounds 


FATTENING  RATIONS  FOR  MATURE  RUMINANTS  195 

per  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  or  only  5  to  10  pounds  for  fattening  ani- 
mals in  order  to  keep  the  appetite  keen)  and  the  cheaper  root  crops  and 
tubers  (beets,  carrots,  beet  pulp,  brewers'  grains,  slops,  potato  fiber, 
molasses,  lupines,  etc.)  are  supplemented  with  the  deficient  nutrients  in 
the  form  of  concentrates. 

Pasturage  alone,  as  a  rule,  will  not  complete  the  fattening  process,  but 
it  constitutes  an  excellent  preparatory  period.  Some  dry  feed  adminis- 
tered before  driving  the  animals  out  to  pasture  is  a  wise  precautionary 
measure  for  preventing  digestive  troubles.  Furthermore,  the  feed  fur- 
nished by  the  pasture  should  be  supplemented  with  a  suitable  by-feed.  If 
the  pasture  consists  of  clover,  alfalfa,  serradella,  vetches  or  other  plants 
rich  in  albumen,  the  by-feed  should  consist  of  feeding  stufifs  rich  in  fat 
and  starch,  like  cracked  grains,  rice  feed  meal,  dry  beet  pulp,  etc.,  while 
forage  like  corn,  timothy,  orchard  grass,  sorghum,  millet,  etc.,  should 
be  supplemental  with  nitrogenous  concentrates  like  oil  cake,  cracked  peas 
or  beans,  dried  brewers'  grains  and  dried  distillery  slops. 

The  water  content  is  an  important  consideration  in  the  fattening  ra- 
tion. Rations  for  sheep  should  contain  about  2  or  3  parts  of  water 
(either  in  the  form  of  drink  or  as  water  content  of  the  ration  itself)  and 
cattle  3  or  4  parts.  Care  should  be  observed  that  animals  do  not  take 
more  water  with  the  feed  than  the  total  required.  Even  the  minimum 
amount  required  should  not  all  be  taken  with  the  feed.  If  circumstances 
are  such  that  very  watery  feeding  stuffs  must  be  used,  sufficient  dry 
matter  should  be  given  in  addition. 

At  all  times  efforts  should  be  made  to  keep  the  appetite  at  its  best, 
i.  e.,  provide  palatable  and  agreeable  feed.  Palatability  can  be  increased 
by  careful  preparations  of  the  rations,  proper  combinations  and  special 
condimental  feeding  stuffs.  Molasses  is  a  corrective  of  this  nature  and  a 
valuable  nutrient  besides.  Common  salt  is  also  useful  (50-80  gm.  =  1/^ 
to  3  ounces). 

Fattening  animals  should  be  kept  contented,  comfortable  and  free  from 
excitement  of  whatever  kind  (irregularity  in  feeding,  poor  or  irregular 
supply  of  litter,  rough  handling,  annoyance  by  other  animals,  etc.). 
Every  unnecessary  muscular  effort  or  nervous  excitement  tends  to  reduce 
the  fattening  effect  of  the  feed.  The  comfortable  and  contented  animal 
helps  the  feeder  reduce  his  feed  bill. 

Stable  conditions  are  also  of  influence;  the  manner  of  securing  the  ani- 
mals, light  supply,  temperature,  etc.  Animals  should  be  so  stabled  that 
rest  is  made  compulsory  and  annoyance  next  to  impossible.  For  this 
reason  box  stalls  are  less  suitable  than  those  of  other  pattern.  Stalls 
for  fattening  animals  should  be  kept  comparatively  dark.  This  reduces 
tissue  waste  and  inclines  animals  to  be  more  restful.  The  external  tem- 
perature has  a  decided  influence  on  the  appetite.  Highly  fed  ruminants 
create  more  heat  than  is  necessary  to  keep  them  comfortable  at  ordinary 
temperatures.  The  excess  temperature,  above  a  certain  point,  no  longer 
serves  the  purpose  of  saving  fuel.    Overheated  animals  instinctively  eat 


196  THE   SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

less,  and  fat  production  is  affected.  Stalls  should  therefore  be  kept 
comfortably  cool  (50°  to  55°  F.  or  less),  for  intensive  feeding.  In  "ex- 
tensive" feeding,  with  smaller  rations,  low  temperatures  counteract  tissue 
deposit,  and  the  surrounding  temperature  should  accordingly  be  kept  at 
a  higher  level  (55°  to  60°  F.). 

In  some  sections  of  the  United  States  (Missouri,  where  climatic  conditions  ap- 
proach those  of  central  Germany)  feeders  go  even  a  step  farther  than  has  been  sug- 
gested. Where  cattle  are  undergoing  intensive  feeding  in  the  cold  season  of  the 
year,  open  sheds,  protected  with  boards  on  the  sides  exposed  to  the  prevailing  storms, 
are  the  only  shelter  provided,  if  any;  and  it  is  maintained  that  animals  can  be  con- 
ditioned in  this  way  more  economically  than  when  stabled.  Waters  gives  the  fol- 
lowing summary  of  results  of  feeding  3  lots  of  steers  of  36  animals  in  eich  lot : 


Digestible 

organic 

Increase  in 

Average 

Feed  consumed 

matter 

live  weight 

weight  at 

per  head 

Per  head 

beginning 

Hay           Corn 

per  day 

Total           per  day 

Where  kept. 

pounds 

pounds     pounds 

pounds 

pounds      pounds 

In  stable  

.     1205 

3471        8383 

19.2 

803            1.78 

In  yard  with  open  shed. 

.     1206 

3396       9457 

20.2 

907            1.90 

In  yard  without  shelter. 

.     1246 

3935        9545 

20.9 

932           2.05 

According  to  this  experiment  the  production  value  of  100  pounds  of  digestible 
matter  is  equal  to  92.75  pounds  live  weight  for  stable  feeding  and  98.1  pounds  for 
feeding  in  the  open  ! 

In  like  manner,  clipping  stall-fed  animals  (temperature  55°  F.)  favors 
radiation  of  heat  from  the  body,  stimulates  the  appetite  and  promotes 
fattening.  Actual  utilization  of  the  feed,  however,  is  not  affected  by 
lower  temperature,  and  clipping  during  cold  weather  is  indicated  only  for 
intensive  feeding.  No  advantage  can  be  expected  from  clipping  fatten- 
ing animals  under  conditions  of  low  external  temperature  and  short  ra- 
tions. 

A  part  of  the  fattening  ration  is  needed  for  the  support  of  the  vital 
processes  and  is  consequently  unproductive.  Since  increase  of  weight  is 
proportionate  to  the  excess  above  this  requirement,  the  most  profitable 
feeding  is  that  which  produces  a  given  gain  in  the  shortest  time,  thus 
eliminating  unnecessaiy  maintenance  feed.  Intensive  feeding  is,  on  the 
whole,  more  economical  than  extensive  feeding.  Unless  circumstances 
demand  otherwise,  intensive  feeding  with  rich  feeding  stuffs  is  the  most 
economical. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  fattening  period,  as  a  result  of  the  filling  of  the  digestive 
canal  with  food  masses  and  water,  animals  seem  to  be  making  enormous  gains.  After 
this  abnormal  period  has  passed  over  and  the  animals  have  become  accustomed  to 
their  increased  rations  and  take  their  feed  and  drink  regularly,  frequent  weighings, 
preferably  before  the  morning  feed,  arc  of  great  assistance  and  value  to  the  feeder. 
Aside  from  variations  due  to  irregularity  in  drinking  water  and  voiding  excrement 
and  urine,  these  gains  are  more  or  less  uniform.  Later,  when  the  deposit  of  watery 
tissues  ceases,  the  rate  of  gain  becomes  less.  This  is  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  the 
fact  that  with  a  gain  of  live  weight  the  maintenance  requirements  of  the  animal  also 
increase.  The  latter  continue  to  increase  as  the  animal  approaches  the  finished  con-, 
dition.  Kellner  found  that  an  animal  weighing  630  kg.  required  21,300  calories  per 
1,000  kg.  live  weight  for  mere  maintenance,  while  one  of  748  kg.  live  weight  rc-^ 
quired  23,920;  one  of  750  kg.,  25,280,  and  one  of  858  kg.,  25,830  calories. 

Since,  on  the  one  hand,  the  cost  of  putting  on  a  pound  of  gain  increases  consid-. 
crably  as  the  fattening  period  advances,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  overfat  meat  docs 


RATIONS  FOR  FATTENING  SHEEP 


197 


not  meet  with  the  approval  of  the  majority  of  consumers,  we  have  two  good  argu- 
ments against  prolonging  the  fattening  period  beyond  certain  limits. 

As  the  fattening  process  continues,  much  of  the  water  in  the  tissues  is  replaced 
with  fat  and  the  live  weight  of  the  animal  may  actually  diminish  while  it  is  making 
real  gains  in  fat.  This  fact  can  be  practically  demonstrated  by  observing  the  increase 
in  size  and  thickness  of  the  external  layers  of  fat.  Toward  the  end  of  the  fattening 
period  when  the  tissues  have  become  filled  with  fat  to  their  limit  a  natural  reaction 
to  the  formation  of  fat  generally  sets  in.  The  animals  begin  to  get  particular  in 
their  choice,  not  to  say  fastidious,  and  eat  less  every  day. 


Rations  for  Fattening  Cattle,  Second  Period 
For  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight  Per  Day 


1. 

Beets   50  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  1 1...  10  lbs. 
Winter  cereal 

straw   5  lbs. 

Coarse  wheat 

bran  4  lbs. 

Peanut  cake  3  lbs. 

Rice  feed  meal.  ...  4  lbs. 


Beets   75  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  6  lbs. 

Clover  hay 6  lbs. 

Winter  cereal 

straw   4  lbs. 

Dried  rye  slops. ...  4  lbs. 

Rapeseed  cake  ....  3  lbs. 


Potatoes  30  lbs. 

Meadow  hay   10  lbs. 

Clover  hay  4  lbs. 

Winter  cereal 

straw   4  lbs. 

Dry  brewers' 

grains    2  lbs. 

Peanut  cake 3  lbs. 


4. 

Potatoes    40  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II.  . .   8  lbs. 

Clover  liay  6  lbs. 

Winter  cereal 

straw  3  lbs. 

Sesame  cake    3  lbs. 

Rapeseed  cake 1  lb. 

5. 

Potato  slop   75  lbs. 

Meadow  hay   6  lbs. 

Spring  cereal  straw  5  lbs. 
VVinter  cereal  straw  5  lbs. 

Wheat  chaff    3  lbs. 

Rye  feed  meal  ....  6  lbs. 

Sesame  cake   3  lbs. 

Cracked  corn    ....  2  lbs. 


Potato  slop    100  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  6  lbs. 
Spring  cereal  straw  5  lbs. 
Winter  cereal  straw  7  lbs. 

Rapeseed  cake 1  lb. 

Rice  feed  meal  ...  3  lbs. 
Palmsecd   cake    ...   5  lbs. 


Pressed  beet  pulp. 60  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  5  lbs. 

Spring  cereal  straw  7  lbs. 

Molasses     3  lbs. 

Rye  bran    3  lbs. 

Peanut  meal    2  lbs. 


Ensilaged  beet 

pulp    50  lbs. 

Clover  hay  6  lbs. 

Alfalfa  hay  6  lbs. 

Barley  straw   6  lbs. 

Fresh  brewers' 

grains    20  lbs. 

Cracked  corn    3  lbs. 

Peanut  cake   1  lb. 


Corn  ensilage    40  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  5  lbs. 

Clover  hay  5  lbs. 

Barley  straw  6  lbs. 

Rice  feed  meal. ...  2  lbs. 

Malt  sprouts    2  lbs. 

Linseed  cake   2  lbs. 

Palmseed  meal   ...  2  lbs. 

Rapeseed  meal    ...  2  lbs. 


Rations  for  Fattening  Sheep,  Second  Period 


Meadow  hay  II.. 

,.10  lbs. 

Clover  hay    

,.  6  lbs. 

Straw9 

(picked  over) . , 

,.  6  lbs. 

Field  beans    

,.  9  lbs. 

Corn     

. .  3  lbs. 

Potatoes    30  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II ...  12  lbs. 
Pea  or  bean  hay..  9  lbs. 
Peanut  cake    5  lbs. 


Beets   40  lbs. 

Meadow  hay   10  lbs. 

Lupine   hay    10  lbs. 

Straw9 
(picked   over)  . .   4  lbs. 

Rye  bran    4  lbs. 

Sesame  cake    3  lbs. 

4. 
Pressed  beet  pulp. 50  lbs. 
Alfalfa  hay  12  lbs. 


Straw9 

(picked  over)  . .  8  lbs. 
Rye  feed  meal.  .  .5.5  lbs. 
Rapeseed   cake    ...  4  lbs. 


Potato  pulp   40  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  8  lbs. 

Spring  cereal  straw  4  lbs. 
Bean  or  pea  hay..  8  lbs. 
Lupine    (yellow)  . .  4  lbs. 

Sesame  cake   2  lbs. 

Rapeseed  meal    ...   1  lb. 


OStraw   designated   "picked   over"  is  estimated   as  used  up  to  the  extent  of   75   per  cent  and  of 
the  same  composition  as  "'very  good  smnmcr  cereal  straw," 


198  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

2.   Fattening  Ration  for  Mature  Swine,  1  to  1^  Years  Old 
For  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight  Per  Day 

First  Second  Third 

Feed                                                    fattening  fattening  fattening 

period  period  period 

Digestible  albumen    3  lbs.  2.8  lbs.  2.0  lbs. 

Digestible  fat   0.7  lbs.  0.5  lbs.  0.4  lbs. 

Digestible   carbohydrates    26-30  lbs.  25.0  lbs.  19.0  lbs. 

Dry  matter    35  lbs.  28-33  lbs.  24-28  lbs. 

Starch   value    27.5  lbs.  26.1  lbs.  19.8  lbs. 

Albumen  ratio  1:10  1:10.8  1:10 

If  the  swine  are  in  a  poor  state  of  nutrition  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fattening  period,  or  in  case  they  are  not  full  grown,  more  nitrogenous 
feed  should  be  given  for  the  first  2  to  4  weeks  (4  pounds  digestible  pro- 
tein). In  the  further  course  of  the  fattening  period,  which  should  termi- 
nate in  3^  to  4  months,  the  amount  of  digestible  protein  is  gradually 
reduced  to  2  pounds.  It  is  also  advisable,  in  order  to  keep  up  the  appe- 
tite, that  the  fat  be  reduced  to  about  0.4  pounds  in  the  course  of  time.  In 
order  to  give  the  bacon  the  desired  consistency,  care  should  be  observed 
in  the  selection  of  the  fat  concentrates.  The  carbohydrates  should  also 
be  reduced  in  the  course  of  the  fattening  period  to  about  20  pounds 
toward  the  end  of  the  period. 

V.    Rations  for  Dairy  Animals 

Rations  for  dairy  cattle  should  be  adjusted  to  the  milk  yield.  The  re- 
verse process,  that  of  adjustment  of  the  milk  yield  to  the  rations,  occurs 
to  a  less  extent  than  is  commonly  supposed.  This  is  possible  only  within 
limits  set  by  the  capacity  of  the  udder.  Only  those  portions  of  the  di- 
gested ration  which  the  udder  is  capable  of  converting  into  milk  can  be 
expected  to  be  thus  converted.  The  nutrients  which  are  finally  con- 
verted into  milk  seem  to  constitute  an  integral  part  of  the  cellular  tissue 
before  the  latter  is  broken  down  through  the  means  of  a  complicated 
chemical  process,  finally  to  be  excreted  as  milk.  The  capacity  to  secrete 
milk  is  at  its  height  in  the  early  part  of  the  lactation  period,  i.  e.,  soon 
after  calving.  As  time  advances  this  capacity  diminishes,  and  no  kind  or 
quantity  of  feed  can  restore  it. 

The  food  supply  remaining  the  same,  that  portion  which  can  no  longer 
be  used  for  conversion  into  milk  is,  under  these  conditions,  deposited 
as  fat  in  the  body  or  udder.  But  abnormal  fat  deposits  in  the  udder 
lessen  its  efficiency  and  besides  constitute  a  waste  of  nutrients  in  ani- 
mals intended  solely  for  milk  production.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
for  practical  purposes  animals  should  be  fed  individually  with  due  con- 
sideration for  their  general  condition  of  nutrition.  The  general  condition 
of  nutrition  should  be  good  but  the  animal  should  not  be  fat.  This  rule 
has  a  very  general  application  and  its  observance  should  not  be  confined  to 
the  lactation  period  only. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FEED  ON  MILK  SECRETION  199 

1.    The  Influence  of  Feed  on  Milk  Secretion 

When  fresh  cows  are  underfed  it  may  be  observed  that  more  nutri- 
ents are  excreted  with  the  milk  than  are  supplied  in  the  feed,  or,  in  other 
words,  that  a  part  of  the  milk  is  formed  from  the  tissues  of  the  body  and 
that  the  latter  is  gradually  losing  weight.  A  certain  degree  of  emaciation 
is  frequently  observed  in  fresh  cows.  The  question  whether,  as  a  result 
of  intensive  breeding,  the  cow's  udder  has  been  developed  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  digestive  organs  are  unable  to  keep  pace  with  it,  may  be 
an  open  one.  However,  milk  secretion  can  not  be  continued  indefinitely 
at  the  expense  of  body  tissues  and  is  bound  to  suffer  sooner  or  later  both 
as  to  quantity  and  quality  (Kuehn).  If  the  food  supply  is  relatively  de- 
ficient in  phosphate  of  lime  the  phosphorus  content  of  the  milk  may  be 
reduced  to  tlie  extent  of  30  per  cent  (Weiskes).  Weiskes  was  unable  to 
discover  an  analogous  deficiency  of  lime. 

A  decrease  in  the  milk  yield  occurring  in  the  course  of  lactation  as  a 
result  of  deficient  food  supply  may  to  some  extent  be  corrected  by  lib- 
eral feeding,  and  both  solids  and  fat  content,  the  latter  in  particular,  can 
be  increased.  Concomitant  with  this  there  is  an  improvement  in  the 
animal's  general  condition.  The  influence  of  nutrition  or  food,  on  the 
milk  yield,  as  already  emphasized,  is  confined  within  certain  limits.  A 
number  of  factors  that  influence  milk  yield,  Uke  individuality,  breed, 
natural  lactation  period,  etc.,  can  not  possibly  be  overcome  by  feeding. 
Within  certain  limits,  however,  in  which  the  food  supply  affects  the  milk 
yield,  there  seems  to  exist  a  zone  in  which  the  yield  is  in  proportion  to 
the  food  supply.  Beyond  this  zone  every  increase  in  milk  yield  requires 
greater  amounts  of  food  until  a  stage  is  reached  where  increases  are  no 
longer  profitable. 

The  proteins,  of  all  the  nutrients,  have  the  greatest  influence  upon 
milk  secretion.  This  is  especially  true  as  to  quantity.  The  quality  on 
chemical  composition  is  less  affected  by  the  proteids.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  effect  of  the  nonalbuminous  nitrogenous  compounds  like  asparagin, 
ammonium  acetate,  etc.,  is  not  very  marked. 

The  effect  of  the  nitrogen-free  nutrients  on  milk  secretion  is  subject 
to  the  influence  of  the  proteids.  When  feed  that  is  rich  in  albumen  but 
deficient  in  nitrogen-free  nutrients  is  given,  the  milk  yield  suffers  and, 
vice  versa,  if  nitrogen-free  nutrients  are  added,  the  yield  is  increased, 
especially  quantitatively.  On  tlie  other  hand,  if  the  feed  administered 
has  been  deficient  in  proteids  and  the  discrepancy  is  widened  by  the  fur- 
ther addition  of  carbonaceous  nutrients,  the  result  may  be  a  depression 
of  the  digestive  functions  and  a  further  decrease  of  the  milk  yield.  This 
may  not  occur  if  the  rations  are  somewhat  less  deficient  in  proteids.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  if  the  animals  in  question  are  otherwise  good  producers 
but  in  a  poor  or  run-down  condition,  the  addition  of  carbohydrates  may 
result  in  an  actual  increase  of  yield,  due  to  the  improved  physical  con- 
dition of  the  animal.     Thus  it  may  not  seem  strange  that  numerous  ex- 


200  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

periments  and  observations  along  this  line  have  given  conflicting  results. 

If  equivalent  amounts  of  carbohydrates  and  albumens  are  replaced  by 
easily  assimilable  fats,  provided  that  the  amount  of  fat  does  not  exceed 
0.5  to  1  pound  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  per  day,  the  milk  yield  will 
not  only  be  increased  in  amount  but  in  fat  content  as  well.  Larger  amounts 
of  fat  (1.5  to  2  pounds  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight)  will  only  occa- 
sionally have  the  same  effect;  frequently  their  effect  is  negligent  or  less 
than  that  of  smaller  amounts.  The  nutrient  fat  of  the  ration,  as  such, 
enters  into  the  composition  of  the  milk  to  a  very  limited  extent.  It  seems 
that  a  direct  transfer  of  the  nutrient  fat  into  milk  occurs  only  in  so  far 
as  the  presence  of  stearin,  palmatin  and  olein  is  concerned.  According 
to  investigations  of  Henriques  and  Hansen  and  others,  it  is  known  tliat 
certain  other  fats  (salicinic  and  linoleic  acids)  are  not  excreted  with  the 
milk. 

A  few  words  should  be  added  with  reference  to  the  effects  of  so-called 
specific  milk-producing  feeding  stuffs.  These  effects  would  be  assumed 
to  be  independent  of  the  digestible  nutrient  content  of  the  substances  in 
question,  but  due  rather  to  their  effect  upon  palatability  and  on  the  activ- 
ity of  the  digestive  glands.  It  has  been  found  that  palmseed  cake,  as 
compared  with  ground  corn  and  peanut  meal  of  equal  starch  value  and 
digestible  albumen  content,  actually  possesses  this  property  to  some  de- 
gree. Cocoanut  cake,  and  corn  distillery  slop  and,  to  a  moderate  degree, 
linseed  cake,  cottonseed  meal  and  dry  brewers'  grains,  as  well  as  the 
leguminous  seeds  (vetches  and  peas),  increase  the  fat  content  of  the 
milk  without  affecting  the  amount.  Maizena  and,  in  a  more  moderate  de- 
gree, com  and  oats,  increase  the  quantity  of  milk  secreted,  but  the  per- 
centage of  fat  is  reduced  so  that  the  total  remains  practically  the  same. 
Camelina  sativa  (false  flax)  and  poppy-seed  cake,  as  well  as  rice  feed 
meal,  have  an  unfavorable  effect  in  this  respect.  The  ethereal  oils  and  bit- 
ter principles  are  also  classed  with  the  specific  milk-producing  substances 
(galactopoietics),  e.  g.,  fennel,  anise,  caraway,  coriander,  juniper  berries, 
calamus  root,  gentian  root,  jaborandi  leaves  (pilocarpin).  Certain  sul- 
phur preparations,  flowers  of  sulphur,  antimony  sulphid  and  bicarbonate 
of  sodium  also  belong  to  this  class, 

Morgen  and  his  co-workers,  as  well  as  Fingerling,  have  shown  that  a 
certain  content  of  aromatic  substances  (ethereal  oils)  in  feedings  stuffs 
actually  influences  milk  secretion.  In  an  experiment  conducted  with  two 
lots  of  sheep  and  goats,  the  one  receiving  good  quality  aromatic  meadow 
hay,  the  other  straw,  starch,  gluten,  tropon  by-products,  sugar,  prepared 
lime  and  hay  ash,  while  the  rations  for  each  lot  contained  the  same 
amount  of  digestible  nutrients  and  had  practically  the  same  starch  values, 
the  meadow  hay  ration  produced  the  largest  yields  of  milk.  After  add- 
ing condimental  feeding  stuffs,  fennel,  anise,  hay  distillate  or  hay  extract 
and  malt  sprouts  to  the  second  ration,  and  subtracting  a  corresponding 
amount  of  digestible  nutrients,  the  milk  yield  and  fat  production  almost 
equalled  that  from  the  meadow  hay  ration.     The  same  favorable  effects 


STANDARDIZATION  OF  RATIONS  FOR  COWS  201 

of  the  ethereal  oils  was  observed  on  addition  of  small  quantities  of  fennel 
to  rainsoaked  or  weathered  hay.  The  effects,  however,  were  not  notice- 
able when  good  meadow  hay  was  used  as  the  basal  feed.  The  addition 
of  fennel  in  the  latter  instance  resulted  in  an  increase  of  hardly  2  per 
cent  in  the  total  milk  yield,  0.5  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter,  3  per  cent  of 
the  fat,  2  per  cent  of  the  sugar  and  IJ^  per  cent  of  the  ash.  The  conclu- 
sion evident  from  this  experiment,  as  well  as  that  of  many  similar  trials, 
is  that  sound,  normal  feeding  stuffs  when  fed  to  healthy  animals  are  not 
materially  improved  by  the  addition  of  condiments.  However,  in  the 
feeding  of  leached,  insipid,  or  slightly  spoiled  feeding  stuffs,  their  mod- 
erate use  is  indicated. 

2.    Standardization  of  Rations  for  Cows 

Rations  for  dairy  cattle,  as  already  emphasized,  should  be  adjusted  to 
the  milk  yield,  i.  e.,  individual  feeding  should  be  practiced  as  much  as 
possible.  In  general  the  quantity  of  feed  should  be  so  regulated  that  the 
animals  are  kept  in  good  condition  and  neither  starve  nor  get  too  fat. 
The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  animals  going  dry  and  intended  for 
future  slaughter.    Kellner  gives  the  following  feeding  standards : 

Daily  milk  yield  per  1000  kg.io  Per  day  per  1000  kg.  live  weight. 


live  weight 

Albumen 

Fat 

Starch  value 

Liters^ 

Kilograms 

Kilograms 

Kilograms 

10 

1.0-1.3 

0.3 

7.8—  8.3 

20 

1.6-1.9 

0.5 

9.8—11.2 

30 

2.2—2.5 

0.6 

11.8-13.9 

40 

2.8-3.2 

0.8 

13.9—16.6 

Dry  matter,  20-30  kg. ;  roughage,  12-20  kg.,  per  1,000  kg.  live  weight. 
The  albumen  ratio  is  1 :6-10.  More  proteids  (or  a  narrower  ration,  1 :4) 
are  not  economical  unless  an  unusual  price  is  obtained  for  the  milk. 

The  more  important  classes  of  feeding  stuffs  for  dairy  cattle  are  as 
follows : 

Green  feed  (pasture  and  soiling  crops,  which  are  most  conducive  to 
health  and  milk  yield)  :  Grass,  clover,  leaves  of  beets,  etc.;  green  com 
and  other  grains  in  their  green  state,  like  oats  and  rye;  buckwheat,  white 
mustard,  rape,  turnips,  spurry,  etc. 

Tubers  and  root  crops:  Beets;  potatoes  in  limited  quantity;  indus- 
trial by-products  like  beet  pulp,  slops,  bran,  oil  cake,  molasses;  grains 
(chiefly  and  preferably  coarsely  ground)  ;  roughage,  hay,  straw,  chaff, 
etc. 

lOFor  the  sake  of  accuracy  the  kilogram  weights  given  in  the  German  table  have  not  been  con- 
verted into  pounds,  as  this  would  involve  the  use  of  complicated  fractions.  For  practical  purposes 
pints  may  be  substituted  for  liters  and  pounds  for  kilograms,  as  has  been  done  by  the  translator 
in  most  of  the  text,  whenever  sucb  changes  did  not  afifect  proportions. — Translator. 


202  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

In  the  selection  of  feeding  stuffs,  palatability  and  agreeability  should 
always  be  sought  and  the  efifect  on  the  taste  and  other  properties  of  milk 
and  butter  kept  in  mind.  The  feeder  is  cautioned  against  the  use  of 
moldy  or  otherwise  spoiled  feeding  stuffs,  silage,  soiling  crops,  etc.,  and 
against  excessive  rations  of  beets  of  any  kind,  beet  leaves,  cabbage  stems, 
potatoes,  distillery  waste  and  pulps,  fresh  or  ensilaged  pulps,  lupines 
with  bitter  principles  not  properly  removed,  leek,  chamomile,  corn  cockle 
seed  in  bran,  rapeseed  cake  (above  1  pound  per  head  per  day),  etc. 
Long-continued  consumption  of  watery  feeding  stuffs  produces  watery 
milk.  The  feeding  to  excess  of  common  beets,  beet  leaves,  beet  pulp, 
potatoes,  vetches,  peas  and  beans,  palmseed  cake,  cocoanut  cake,  cotton- 
seed cake  or  meal,  straw,  overripe  grass  and  hay,  or  the  latter  mixed 
with  sour  grasses,  makes  hard  butter.  The  opposite  effect,  or  "greasy" 
butter,  results  from  excessive  feeding  of  ground  oats  or  corn,  rice  feed 
meal,  and  rape  seed,  sesame  seed  and  sunflower  seed  cake  or  meal,  and 
wheat  bran.  Good  grass  and  clover,  carrots,  oats  and  rice  feed  meal  are 
correctives  for  palatability.  As  already  stated,  palmseed  cake  and  cocoa- 
nut  and  cottonseed  cake  have  a  tendency  to  make  the  butter  hard,  while 
rapeseed  cake,  ground  corn  and  rice  feed  meal  have  the  opposite  effect. 

For  pregnant  coivs  the  daily  ration  of  digestible  albumen  should  be 
increased  during  the  5^  months  preceding  parturition.  The  increase 
should  amount  to  from  1^  to  3  ounces  (average  2  ounces)  per  day  per 
1,000  pounds  live  weight.  The  amount  of  straw  should  be  reduced  dur- 
ing this  period,  or  withdrawn  completely  and  replaced  with  hay  (10 
pounds  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight).  Heating,  bloating  and  consti- 
pating feeding  stuffs  like  ground  legume  seeds,  rank  clover  and  wet  green 
forage,  as  well  as  frosted  or  frozen,  fungus  infected,  musty  or  soiled  feed 
of  any  kind,  should  be  avoided.  Green  forage,  especially  good  pasture, 
and  good  hay,  oats,  crushed  barley,  bran,  and  linseed,  palmseed,  cocoa- 
nut  and  peanut  cake  or  meal,  dry  beet  pulp,  dry  distillers'  slop  and  dry 
brewers'  grains,  as  well  as  beets  and  potatoes,  are  indicated  for  pregnant 
cows. 

Rations  for  dry  cows  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight  should  contain  0.74 
pounds  of  digestible  albumen  and  6  pounds  starch  value.  In  many  in- 
stances this  low  ration  is  reduced  to  from  y^  to  1  pound  one  month  be- 
fore calving.  It  is  said  that  the  danger  from  milk  fever  can  in  this  way 
be  much  reduced.  Immediately  after  calving  it  is  customary  in  many 
places  to  administer  a  warm  gruel  or  bran  mash.  For  a  few  days  imme- 
diately following  calving  light,  easily  digestible  feed  is  advisable  on  ac- 
count of  the  relaxed  condition  of  the  abdominal  muscles. 

As  already  discussed  in  detail  on  page  156  etc.,  an  abundant  supply  of 
mineral  matter  is  necessary   for  all  milk-producing  animals.     This  ap- 


RATIONS  FOR  MILK  COWS 


303 


plies  in  particular  to  the  bone- forming  salts  which  occur  in  milk  in  large 
amount.  Cows  giving  a  daily  yield  of  10  quarts  of  milk  suffer  a  loss  of 
18  grams  of  lime  and  15  grams  of  phosphoric  acid.  Unless  a  sufficient 
amount  of  these  minerals  is  provided  in  the  feed,  the  body  will  suffer  the 
loss.  In  providing  for  this  loss  in  building  the  ration,  the  requirements 
of  the  animal  itself  should  also  be  kept  in  mind.  A  cow  of  1,000  pounds 
live  weight  requires  for  its  maintenance  1^  ounces  of  lime  and  five- 
sixths  of  an  ounce  of  phosphoric  acid.  Since  these  two  minerals,  when 
combined  or  mixed  with  the  feed,  can  be  utilized  by  the  animal  to  the 
extent  of  only  33  to  50  per  cent,  a  cow  giving  10  liters  (2^  gallons)  of 
milk  per  day  should  have  at  least  3^  ounces  of  lime  and  2^  ounces 
of  phosphoric  acid  in  its  ration  per  day.  Cows  giving  over  10  liters  per 
day  should  have  correspondingly  more.  Where  an  abundance  of  good 
green  forage,  hay  and  clover  are  furnished,  the  requirements  for  these 
minerals  will  be  met.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  ration  consists  of  leached 
material  or  stuffs  deficient  in  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  from  the  begin- 
ning, like  slops,  pulps,  brewers'  grains,  straw,  feed  meal,  etc.,  then  these 
minerals  must  be  added  in  one  form  or  another. 

'.^ 

Rations  for  Milk  Cows 
A.  Daily  Milk  Yield,  15  Pounds  (For  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight  Per  Day) 


1. 

Beets   30  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  I 8  lbs. 

Winter  cereal  straw  5  lbs. 

Barley  straw  7  lbs. 

Wheat  bran  2  lbs. 

Palmseed  cake    ...  2  lbs. 

Cottonseed   meal  . .  1  lb. 

2. 

Beets    40  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  6  lbs. 
Winter  cereal  straw  3  lbs. 

Barley  straw   8  lbs. 

Wheat  chafif    3  lbs. 

Decorticated 

cottonseed   meal .  2  lbs. 
Malt  sprouts    1.5  lbs. 

3. 

Beets   50  lbs. 

Clover  hay    6  lbs. 

Spring  cereal  straw  8  lbs. 

Wheat  chaflf   2  lbs. 

Dry  brewers' 

grains    2  lbs. 

Hulled  peanut  cake  2  lbs. 

4. 

Potatoes   10  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  5  lbs. 

Clover  hay 5  lbs. 

Winter  cereal  straw  4  lbs. 


Spring  cereal  straw  4  lbs. 
Fresh  brewers' 

grains    20  lbs. 

Palmseed  cake 1  lb. 


Potatoes   20  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  I 8  lbs. 

Alfalfa  hay   5  lbs. 

Barley  straw 2  lbs. 

Spring  cereal  straw  4  lbs. 
Palmseed  cake. ...  2  lbs. 

6. 

Potatoes    15  lbs. 

Clover  hay 10  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  I 5  lbs. 

Spring  cereal  straw  3  lbs. 
Fresh  brewers' 
grains    20  lbs. 


Potato  slop    50  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  10 lbs. 
Spring  cereal 

straw   10  lbs. 

Rye  feed  meal 3  lbs. 

Peanut  cake  meal .   1  lb. 


Ensilaged  beet  pulp  30  lbs. 

Clover  hay    5  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II. . .  5  lbs. 


Oat  straw 5  lbs. 

Wheat  chaff    3  lbs. 

Malt  sprouts  2  lbs. 

Oat  bran 1  lb. 

Molasses  palmseed 

meal     2  lbs. 

Rice  feed  meal. . .  1.5  lbs. 
Tankage    0.5  lbs. 


Ensilaged  beet  pulp  50  lbs. 

Clover  hay  5  lbs. 

Spring  cereal  straw  8  lbs. 
Coarse  wheat  bran  2  lbs. 
Cottonseed  cake.  .0.5  lbs. 
Palmseed  cake  . .  .2.0  lbs. 

10. 

Ensilaged  beet  pulp  50  lbs. 

Clover   hay    5  lbs. 

Spring  cereal  straw  8  lbs. 
Palmseed  cake  ...  2  lbs. 
Peanut  meal  1.5  lbs. 

11. 

Corn   ensilage 30  lbs. 

Clover  hay  8  lbs. 

Barley  straw   5  lbs. 

Wheat  chaff    3  lbs. 

Rye  bran    2  lbs. 

Linseed  meal  2  lbs. 

Palmseed    meal  ...  2  lbs. 


204 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


B.    Daily  Milk  Yield,  20  Pounds  (For  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight  Per  Day) 


Beets    

50  lbs. 

Clover  hav  .  .  . 

8  lbs. 

Winter  cereal 

straw  

10  lbs. 

Sesame  cake   , 

4  lbs. 

Coarse  wheat 

bran  1  lb. 

Dry  brewers' 

grains    

lib. 

2. 

Beets   30  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  8 lbs. 
Spring  cereal  straw  6  lbs. 
Fresh  brewers' 

grains    25  lbs. 

Rapeseed  meal 3  lbs. 

Rice  feed  meal   ...  2  lbs. 


Potatoes   20  lbs. 

Clover  hay 10  lbs. 

Wheat  straw  5  lbs. 

Wheat  chaff    4  lbs. 

Fresh  brewers' 

grains    20  lbs. 

Malt  sprouts   1  lb. 

Tankage    0.51b. 


Potatoes   25  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  6  lbs. 
Winter  cereal  straw  5  lbs. 
Bean  or  pea  hay..  8  lbs. 
Cracked  beans  ...  2  lbs. 
Sesame  cake  3  lbs. 


Potato  slop   50  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  8 lbs. 
Spring  cereal  straw  5  lbs. 
Winter  cereal  straw  6  lbs. 

Rice  feed  meal 3  lbs. 

Cracked  beans  ...  2  lbs. 
Malt  sprouts 2  lbs. 

6. 
Molasses  beet  pulp  5  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  5  lbs. 

Spring  cereal  straw  5  lbs. 

Chaff   2  lbs. 

Field  beans    2  lbs. 

Cocoanut  cake 2  lbs. 

Peanut  cake   1.5  lbs. 


Ensilaged  beet  pulp  35  lbs. 
Meadow  hav  II...  4  lbs. 


Clover  hay 6  lbs. 

Oat  straw    4  lbs. 

Wheat  chaff   3  lbs. 

Fresh   brewer's 

grains    20  lbs. 

Malt  sprouts   2  lbs. 

Rapeseed  cake  . .  .2.5  lbs. 


Ensilaged  beet  pulp  45  lbs. 

Clover   hay    9  lbs. 

Spring  cereal  straw  6  lbs. 

Wheat  chaff    3  lbs. 

Winter  cereal  straw  2  lbs. 

Peanut  cake   2.5  lbs. 

Palmseed  cake....  3  lbs. 


Dry  beet  pulp 6  lbs. 

Meadow  hay  II...  6  lbs. 

Clover  hay 6  lbs. 

Spring  cereal  straw  6  lbs. 

Wheat  chaff    2  lbs. 

Coarsely  ground 

beans    1  lb. 

Rapeseed   cake    ...   3  lbs. 
Sunflower  seedcake  lib. 


3.    Rations  for  Goats 

A  few  words  in  regard  to  the  feeding  of  goats  are  in  order.  The 
best  and  most  natural  feed  for  goats  is  green  forage  obtained  from 
meadows  that  have  not  been  heavily  manured  or  fertilized.  The  leaves 
or  green  shoots  of  blackberries  and  of  the  hazel,  birch,  linden,  oak  and 
the  grape  vine  are  also  suitable  and  well  liked.  In  a  general  way,  goats 
should  be  fed  according  to  the  same  principles  laid  down  for  the  feeding 
of  cattle.  A  common  error  consists  in  feeding  goats  on  kitchen  refuse 
and  thin  soups  or  gruels.    This  is  wrong. 

The  nutrient  content  of  the  feed  should  be  in  accord  with  the  require- 
ments of  the  animal  and  its  work  or  product.  Concentrates,  root  crops 
and  tubers  should  be  fed  in  a  more  or  less  dry  state.  Above  all,  suffi- 
cient quantities  of  green  forage  and  hay  should  be  provided.  Weekly 
additions  of  prepared  chalk  or  feed-lime,  3  to  4  teaspoonfuls  for  kids 
and  3  to  4  tablespoon fuls  for  mature  goats,  are  recommended  as  mini- 
mum quantities. 

The  feeding  of  kids  is  much  along  the  same  line  recommended  for 
lambs. 

-  The  author  has  calculated  the  following  values  as  standards  for  mature 
goats: 


RATIONS  FOR  DOGS 


205 


Digestible  albumen  Starch  value 

Maintenance  feed  for  1,000  pounds 

live  weight  per  day 1        to  1.2    lbs.  8.3    to    9.0  lbs. 

Or  for  100  pounds  live  weight  per  day 0.1     to  0.12  lbs.  0.83  to    0.9  lbs. 

Production  ration  per  1,000  pounds 

live  weight  per  day,  milk  yield.... 20 lbs.    2.0    to  2.2   lbs.  12.0    to  14.0 lbs. 

100  . .." 2  lbs.    0.2    to  0.22  lbs.  1.2    to    1.4  lbs. 

1000   ■■*■  40  lbs.    3.2    to  3.6   lbs.  16.4    to  19.0  lbs. 

'lOO   "*■".'. 4  lbs.    0.32  to  0.36  lbs.  1.64  to    1.9  lbs. 

1000  60  lbs.    4.4    to  4.8   lbs.  20.6    to  24.0  lbs. 

'lOO   6  lbs.    0.44  to  0.48  lbs.  2.06  to    2.4  lbs. 

A  few  rations  for  goats  follow. 

Rations  for  One  Goat  (Milk  Yield,  3  to  4  Pounds) 


1. 

Morning :  Good  hay 1.5    lbs. 

Noon:   Leaf  hay 1.0   lb. 

Turnip  cabbage    3.0   lbs. 

Evening:  Chaffed  green  forage. 3.0   lbs. 

Good  clover  hay 1.0    lb. 

In  addition :   Common  beets  or 

potato  peelings  0.5    lb. 

Malt   sprouts  and   wheat   bran, 

of  each  0.25  lb. 

With  a  milk  yield  of  4  pounds,  0.6  to 
1.2  pounds  of  oats  should  be  added  to 
the  above  ration.  Young  growing  ani- 
mals should  also  have  additional  oats. 


2. 

Morning  and  evening :  Hay,  root  crops, 

oats  or  bran. 
Noon :  Kitchen  or  farm  refuse. 

Hay    2  to  3    lbs. 

Root  crops  2  lbs. 

Oats  or  bran 1  to  1.5  lbs. 

Milking  goats  should  have,  in  addi- 
tion, mornings  and  evenings,  1  lb. 
coarsely  ground  grain,  noon  1  quart 
oats  and  potatoes  or  beets,  the  amounts 
to  be  varied  slightly  according  to  milk 
yield. 


Summer  ration  for  100-pound  goat,  per  day;  milk  yield  3  quarts. 

Medium  quality  meadow  hay 3     lbs. 

Coarse  wheat  bran   3    lbs. 

Meadow  grass    2.5  lbs. 

Winter  ration  for  100-pound  goat,  per  day;  milk  yield  3  quarts. 

Common  beets  (average) 6.0  lbs. 

Meadow    hay    II 2.0  lbs. 

Coarse  wheat  bran 3.0  lbs. 

Peanut  meal   0.4  lbs. 

Ration  for  100-pound  goat,  per  day;  milk  yield  1  quart. 

Hay  II    3  lbs. 

Potatoes   (average)    2  lbs. 

Coarse  wheat  bran  1  lb. 

Ration  for  30  goats  per  day;  total  milk  yield  30  quarts. 

Wheat  feed  meal  30  lbs. 

Good  hay  20  lbs. 

Good  clover  hay 18  lbs. 

Oat  straw  40  lbs. 

Potatoes  (average)    SO  lbs. 


VI.    Rations  for  Dogs 

Although  the  dog  is  a  carnivorous  animal,  he  will  thrive  better  on  the 
more  economical  mixed  rations  than  on  meat  alone.  The  ordinary  family 
dog  is  usually  nourished  with  the  wastes  of  the  table  and  kitchen.  In 
this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that  salt  is  to  be  avoided  and  that 
strong  spices  like  pepper,  paprika,  ginger,  etc.,  are  harmful.  It  is  well 
also  to  avoid  the  feeding  of  the  brittle  and  splintery  bones  of  poultry.. 
game  and  mutton. 


206  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

The  following  foods  are  in  common  use: 

1.  Meat  of  any  kind,  unspoiled,  raw  or  cooked.  Horse  meat  is  just  as 
wholesome  as  any  other  kind.  Slaughterhouse  ofifal  like  portions  of  the 
genital  organs  (scrotum),  the  stomachs  of  cattle,  intestine,  spleen,  lungs, 
tankage,  etc.,  are  suitable. 

2.  Milk,  for  young,  weak,  old,  pregnant  or  nursing  dogs. 

3.  Cooked  rice.  Rice  mixed  with  a  little  meat  is  considered  the  most 
wholesome  food  for  the  dog. 

4.  Oat  flour,  oatmeal  and  ground  oats,  boiled  or  scalded ;  favorite 
food  for  hunting  dogs. 

5.  Bread.  This  is  in  very  common  use  but  much  less  wholesome  than 
the  feeding  stuffs  given  under  3,  4  and  6. 

6.  Cooked  legume  seeds  and  meals.  Objectionable  for  watch  dogs 
and  lap  dogs,  on  account  of  tendency  to  cause  constipation,  obesity  and 
laziness.  Very  suitable  for  draft  dogs,  however,  especially  when  mixed 
with  rice  (1  pound  rice  and  about  two-thirds  of  a  pound  of  peas  for  a 
large  dog). 

7.  Potatoes  and  vegetables  should  be  used  merely  as  by-feeds  for 
dogs  at  rest.  They  are  not  suitable  as  an  exclusive  diet  and  should  not 
be  fed  at  all  as  a  basal  feed  to  growing  or  working  dogs,  or  nursing 
bitches. 

8.  Dog  biscuits  (p.  127)  are  usually  soaked  in  warm  water  (broth  or 
soup),  seldom  fed  dry.  Dog  biscuits  of  proper  composition  may  be  used 
as  exclusive  feed,  but  are  not  economical. 

One  feed  per  day  is  sufficient  for  dogs  at  rest  or  doing  light  work. 
Two  feeds  per  day  are  necessary  for  dogs  at  hard  work.  If  the  dog  is 
kept  in  the  house,  a  light  evening  meal  and  a  heavier  morning  meal  are 
best.    The  food  should  never  be  given  hot,  but  always  lukewarm  or  cold. 

By-feeds  of  bones  (calf  bones,  calf  feet  and  cartilage)  or  prepared 
chalk  are  indispensable  for  growing  dogs  and  occasionally  necessary  for 
mature  animals. 

Pregnant  bitches  should  have  concentrated,  easily  digestible  food  (meat 
with  some  fat  as  well  as  rice  and  oatmeal  or  milk  with  oatmeal  or  corn- 
meal,  etc.).  The  ration  should  be  rather  short  for  one  or  two  days  after 
whelping.  After  this  time  nutritious  food  in  the  form  of  whole  milk, 
oatmeal  and  rice  should  be  given. 

Young  dogs  (pups)  thrive  best  on  the  mother's  milk  during  the  first 
two  months  of  their  existence.  After  this  the  food  for  the  smaller  breeds 
is  usually  much  the  same  as  that  for  man,  but  this  is  hardly  sufficient 
for  the  larger  breeds.  Lime  and  albumen  should  be  increased  from  four 
to  five  fold.  Cow's  milk  does  not  constitute  a  complete  ration  for  the 
young  dog.  Milk,  rice  and  bread  are  equally  unsuitable.  These  foods 
contain  too  little  lime  and  albumen  and  predispose  to  rachitis.  The  food 
of  young  dogs  should  approach  the  bitch's  milk  in  chemical  composition. 
The  latter  is  composed  of  about  7.5  per  cent  albumen,  9.5  per  cent  fat, 
3  per  cent  milk  sugar  and  1  per  cent  mineral  matter.     In  order  to  grow 


FEEDING  CHICKENS  207 

a  good  bony  frame,  especially  in  dogs  of  the  large  breeds,  an  abundance 
of  bone-forming  salts  must  be  furnished.  The  growing  dog  thrives  best 
on  animal  nutrients,  raw  meat,  bones  and  blood.  Food  of  a  vegetable 
nature  should  of  course  be  added  to  these;  peas,  beans,  lentils,  also 
ground  oats,  corn  and  barley.  In  addition  to  this  character  of  food  the 
young  dog  should  always  have  a  supply  of  ground  raw  bones,  in  as  fresh 
condition  as  possible.  Transition  foods,  to  be  given  in  the  weaning  period 
should  consist  of  cow's  milk  (goat's  milk  is  better),  with  a  little  chopped 
meat  added.  The  milk  may  be  discontinued  in  the  eighth  to  tenth  week. 
Pups  should  be  fed  four  times  a  day  until  8  weeks  old.  then  three  times 
until  5  or  6  months  old,  when  two  feeds  a  day  will  suffice. 

VII.    Poultry  Feed 
1.    Feeding  Chickens 

Freshly  hatched  chicks  are  provided  with  a  sufficient  food  supply  for 
the  first  24  to  48  hours  in  the  form  of  the  unused  portion  of  the  yolk 
which  has  become  enveloped  in  the  abdominal  cavity.  Beginning  with 
the  second  or  third  day  they  should  have  as  much  cracked  buckwheat, 
cracked  oats  or  hulled  millet  every  two  or  three  hours  as  they  will  eat 
up  clean  in  half  an  hour.  Toward  the  end  of  the  first  week  they  may 
have  soft  feed  consisting  of  old  wheat  bread  and  finely  chopped  greens. 
Ants'  eggs  (larvae)  are  an  excellent  addition  in  this  stage  (easily  obtained 
by  a  little  search  under  old  boards,  wood,  etc.).  This  feed  should  be 
alternated  with  the  grain,  feeding  every  three  hours  as  before.  The  soft 
feed,  bread,  may  be  improved  by  addition  of  finely  chopped  hard-boiled 
eggs  or  scrambled  eggs,  with  cheese,  etc.  The  scrambled  eggs  are  pre- 
pared by  mixing  equal  parts  of  eggs  and  fresh  milk  and  finely  broken 
eggshells,  stirring  and  heating.  One  egg  per  day  is  sufficient  for  15 
chicks. 

Beginning  with  the  second  week,  mixed  dry  or  soft  feed  (mash)  is 
suitable.  The  latter  is  prepared  by  mixing  oat,  barley,  corn  or  buckwheat 
meal  with  sufficient  water  or  milk  to  make  a  moist,  crumbly  (not  pasty ") 
mass.  The  addition  to  this  of  greens,  like  finely  chopped  clover,  notch- 
weed  (Atriplex),  spinach,  entrails  of  fowls,  grass,  nettles,  dandelions, 
cress,  yarrow,  etc.,  or  grated  carrots,  sprouted  grains,  or  finely  chopped 
meat,  soft  cartilage  from  veal,  tankage  or  fish  meal,  blood  meal,  hard 
curd  or  cottage  cheese,  finely  ground  bone,  etc.,  is  a  common  and  com- 
mendable practice.  Estimated  amounts  per  head  per  day  consist  of  meal, 
2  to  5  grams  for  the  first  three  weeks  and  10  grams  thereafter;  ground 
bone  or  bone  meal,  5  to  10  grams  or  phosphate  of  lime,  >:+  to  2  grams, 
in  place  of  the  bone  meal.  Meat  fiber  chick  feed.  "Spratt's  patent"  and 
other  similar  preparations  have  proved  very  satisfactory.  The  commer- 
cial preparations  are  usually  fed  as  complete  rations,  exclusively  or  alter- 
nating with  other  feed. 

The  feed  is  strewn  out  on  little  boards,  put  in  galvanized  boxes  or 
troughs,  etc.    All  paraphernalia  of  this  sort  should  be  kept  clean.    Only 


208  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

so  much  feed  should  be  given  at  a  time  as  will  be  picked  up  clean.  Young 
chicks  should  be  fed  every  two  or  three  hours  until  a  few  weeks  old, 
then  four  times  a  day. 

Hulled  millet  seed,  oatmeal  or  cracked  buckwheat  should  be  fed  mixed 
or  alternated  with  the  soft  feed.  Sand  and  charcoal  should  at  all  times 
be  accessible  to  the  little  chicks. 

Beginning  with  the  third  week  the  cracked  grains  are  gradually  dis- 
placed with  wheat  bran,  the  fresh  milk  with  sour,  and  the  quantity  of 
curd  is  increased.  Cracked  or  broken  rice,  barley,  wheat  and  corn  are 
suitable  at  this  stage. 

When  the  chicks  are  5  weeks  old,  malt  sprouts  and  water-soaked  bread 
(with  surplus  water  expressed),  and  occasionally  boiled  potatoes  and 
larger  grains,  are  good.  At  8  or  9  weeks  the  chicks  may  have  the  same 
feed  as  the  older  fowls. 

Pure  water,  not  too  cold,  should  always  be  accessible.  Many  poultry 
raisers  add  3  grams  of  copperas  to  each  quart  of  water  as  a  preventive 
for  diarrhea.  Drinking  vessels  should  be  kept  clean.  Automatic  "foun- 
tains" are  much  in  use;  they  serve  to  keep  the  water  free  from  dirt  and 
protect  the  chicks  from  getting  wet  by  being  immersed  in  larger  vessels. 

Dry  feed  consists  of  ground  grains  of  all  kinds — buckwheat,  oatmeal, 
oats,  barley,  corn,  bran,  linseed  meal,  hulled  millet,  canary  grass  seed,  etc. 
This  may  be  mixed  with  fish  meal  or  tankage,  greens,  etc.  Dry  feeding  is 
most  practicable,  attended  with  less  work  than  the  use  of  soft  feeds,  and 
has  the  advantage  that  the  feed  is  less  apt  to  spoil  before  being  used. 

According  to  the  age  of  the  chicks,  the  grains  fed  may  be  millet, 
cracked  or  broken  rice,  cracked  corn,  whole  wheat,  etc.,  in  the  order 
named.    The  following  plan  has  been  found  successful : 

For  the  first  week  or  two.  millet  seed  and  oatmeal,  strewn  on  a  clean 
board  in  the  runs ;  chaffed  straw  added  to  make  the  chicks  scratch. 

For  the  third  and  fourth  weeks,  an  automatic  feeder  containing  a  mix- 
ture of  4  parts  oatmeal,  2  parts  cracked  corn,  1  part  fish  meal  and  one- 
half  part  finely  chopped  clover.  In  addition,  three  times  a  day.  strewn  in 
the  run,  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  millet,  rice  and  dari.* 

For  the  fifth  and  sixth  weeks,  a  mixture  of  oatmeal,  ground  oats  and 
finely  cut  clover,  2  parts  of  each;  cracked  com,  wheat  bran  and  fish  meal, 
1  part  of  each.    In  addition,  broken  rice,  dari*  and  cracked  corn. 

For  the  seventh  to  tenth  weeks,  a  mixed  feed  consisting  of  4  parts 
each  of  oatmeal  and  clover  hay,  finely  chaffed,  and  2  parts  each  of  bran 
and  fish  meal.  In  addition,  grain  feed  composed  of  wheat  and  cracked 
com. 

Later  on  barley  and  oats  may  be  added  and  the  quantity  of  wheat  bran 
increased. 

In  connection  with  all  of  the  above  rations  a  supply  of  green  stuff  is 
very  desirable.  In  the  absence  of  green  stuff,  grated  carrots  and  kohl- 
rabi Cturnip  cabbage)  are  good. 

•Sorgh.  tart. 


POULTRY  FEEDING 


209 


In  the  absence  of  an  opportunity  to  roam  about  on  a  pasture  or  stubble 
field,  chicks  are  deprived  of  many  dainty  morsels  in  the  form  of  worms, 
caterpillars,  insects,  etc.  A  manure  pile  is  a  good  substitute.  This  can 
be  improvised  by  making  a  hole  one  yard  or  more  square  and  18  to  20 
inches  deep  and  filling  it  with  fresh  horse  dung  and  occasionally  sprink- 
ling this  with  blood  to  attract  flies. 

Rations  for  chickens  3  months  of  age  may  be  compounded  according 
to  the  rules  outlined  on  page  169.  The  nutritive  ratio  should  be  narrow, 
1 :3-4. 

Among  the  possible  feeding  stuffs  to  select  from  may  be  mentioned 
tankage  and  fish  meal,  blood  meal  or  dried  blood,  cracklings,  dried  May 
beetles,  shrimps,  fresh  ground  bone  (Fig.  88),  horse  meat,  curds,  sour 
milk,  buttermilk,  linseed  cake,  sunflower  seed  cake  and  other  oil  cakes, 
peas,  malt  sprouts,  dried  brewers'  grains,  bran,  feed  meals,  grains  of 
all  kinds,  acorns,  horse  chestnuts  (dried  and  ground  like  acorns)  pota- 


Bone  grinder. 


Fig.  89.     Soft-feed  trough. 


toes,  sugar  beets,  artichokes,  hempseed,  flaxseed,  poppy  seed.  Chickens, 
as  a  rule,  will  not  eat  the  seeds  of  legumes,  beans,  peas,  etc. 

Finally,  a  good  supply  of  green  feed  is  at  all  times  desirable.  Chickens 
kept  in  pens  should  be  given  green  stuff  like  nettles,  notchweed,  dande- 
lions, sweet  grasses,  clover,  alfalfa,  serradella,  vetches,  spinach,  mangels, 
spurry,  rape,  buckwheat,  corn,  artichokes,  comfrey,  beet  and  cabbage 
leaves.  Beets,  cabbage,  sprouted  grains  (oats),  chaflfed  clover  and 
meadow  hay,  etc.,  etc.,  may  be  given  in  the  absence  of  the  more  suitable 
and  succulent  plants  mentioned  above. 

Laying  hens  should  also  have  access  to  sand,  charcoal,  gravel,  crushed 
stone  (grit),  oyster  shells,  etc. 

The  grains  are  fed  whole  and  raw,  preferably  in  the  evening.  Very 
large  grains  of  corn  should  be  crushed.  Barley  and  oats  are  improved 
by  sprouting.  Feed  for  fattening  purposes — corn,  barley,  rice,  millet — 
should  be  boiled  or  soaked  in  water.  Potatoes  should  be  cooked  or 
steamed.  Beets  should  be  fed  raw,  green  stuff  fresh  and  not  chopped, 
or  chopped  fine  and  mixed  with  chaffed  hay.  Oil  cake  or  meal  and  tank- 
age are  usually  mixed  with  other  feed  without  any  further  preparation 
and  may  be  fed  as  soft  feed  (slightly  moistened)  or  dry. 


210 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


The  estimated  requirement  for  a  large  laying  hen  consists  of  120  to 
130  grams  of  feed  per  day  with  a  dry  matter  content  of  80  grams,  diges- 
tible albumen  14  to  15  grams,  fat  4  to  5  grams,  and  50  grams  of  digesti- 
ble carbohydrates.  If  the  hens  have  an  opportunity  to  pick  up  insects, 
worms  and  other  natural  feeding  stuffs,  their  rations  may  be  reduced  by 
one-fourth  to  one-third,  according  to  circumstances.  As  a  rule  about  15 
to  30  grams  (y^  to  1  ounce)  of  grain,  evenings,  is  sufficient  under  these 
circumstances.  In  the  summer  confined  hens  are  fed  three  times  a  day ; 
in  winter  twice  a  day. 


A.     Soft  Feed  Ration  for  Laying  Hen,  Weight  4  Pounds,  Per  Day 


L 

Potatoes  50  gm. 

Wheat  bran    25  gm. 

Curd    15  gm. 

Ground  bone    ....  5  gm. 
Grain : 

Oats    10  gm. 

Corn    IS  gm. 

Barley    20  gm. 


Potatoes  50  gm. 

Wheat  bran 25  gm. 

Fish  meal 10  gm. 

Grain : 

Oats    25  gm. 

Corn   25  gm. 


3. 

Potatoes     45  gm. 

Malt  sprouts 20  gm. 

Dried  blood 50  gm. 

Bone  meal 10  gm. 

Grain : 

Wheat    20  gm. 


Oats 
Corn 


,10  gm. 
.20  gm. 


(For   Summer) 
Potatoes  or  beets. 30  gm. 

Wheat  bran  60  gm. 

Tankage     5  gm. 

Grain : 

Barley     30  gm. 

Wheat     30  gm. 


(For  Winter) 
Potatoes  or  beets. 50 gm. 

Wheat  bran 40  gm. 

Fish  meal    10  gm. 

Grain : 

Corn,  oats  and 
Wheat     40  gm. 


Potatoes     70  gm. 

Crushed  barley  ...lOgm. 

Sesame  meal 10  gm. 

Clover  sweepings  .  .7  gm. 
Fish  meal    5  gm. 


Tankage  5  gm. 

Grain : 

Oats 30  gm. 

Beets  ad  libitum 

7. 

(For  Winter) 

(Hens  out  on  run) 

Potatoes  40  gm. 

Serradella  sweepings 
or  chaffed  clover  8  gm. 

Wheat  bran 10  gm. 

Fish  meal    10  gm. 

Or  ground  bone..  .15  gm. 
Grain : 

Oats  45  gm. 

Beets  ad  libitum 

8. 
(For  Moulting  Period) 

Potatoes   40  gm. 

Cracked  corn    15  gm. 

Wheat  bran    ....   10  gm. 

Cracklings   15  gm. 

Fish  meal  or 

tankage   5  gm. 

Grain : 

Corn 40-50  gm. 


B.     Dry  Feed  Ration  for  Laying  Hen,  Weight  4  Pounds,  Per  Day 

1.     (For  Winter.)     Dry  Feed,  in  Automatic  Feeder,  Consisting  Of: 

Cracked  corn    1  qt.  Tankage  1  qt.  Beets  ad  libitum 

Ground  oats    1  qt.  To  be  taken  ad  libitum  and 

Wheat  bran 2qts.  (About  5  gm.  daily)  Mornings— oats    .  .20  gm. 

Clover  (chaffed)    ..2qts.  In  addition :  Evenings— corn    ..30gm. 


2.     (For  Summer,  With  Free  Run.)     Dry  Feed,  in  Self  Feeder,  Consisting  Of: 


Ground  oats  .. 
Ground  barley 


.Iqt. 
.Iqt. 


Wheat  bran  4  qts. 

In  addition : 


Mornings — oats   .  .20  gm. 
Evenings — barley    30  gm. 


3.     (For   Summer,  Limited  Run.)       Dry  Feed,    from    Self  Feeder,   Consisting  of; 


Ground  barley 2  qts. 

Wheat  bran  2  qts. 

Chaffed  clover   1  qt. 


Fish  meal /4  qt. 

In  addition: 

Green  stuff;  kitchen  offal 


Mornings — oats    .  .20  gm. 
Evenings— wheat .  .30  gm. 


FATTENING  FRIES 


211 


Vessels  for  soft  feed  should  consist  of  troughs  with  wire  grating  to 
prevent  waste,  and  galvanized  iron  or  wooden  tops  (Fig.  89). 

Lettuce  heads  and  cabbage  or  beets  may  be  placed  in  little  open  racks 
where  they  are  accessible,  or  suspended  on  a  string  or  wire  to  prevent 
waste  from  soiling. 

Dry  feed  can  be  supplied  in  self  feeders. 

Water  may  be  supplied  in  automatic  water  bottles  (Figs.  91,  92). 
Flat,  open  vessels  are  too  liable  to  become  filled  with  dirt.  Feeding  and 
drinking  vessels  should  be  cleaned  daily.  Fresh  water  should  be  pro- 
vided at  least  once  every  day.  About  2  quarts  of  water  are  required 
daily  for  10  hens  on  dry  feed. 

Hens  and  chicks  thrive  best  on  open  ranges,  pastures  and  stubble  fields, 
etc.     Even  under  these  conditions  extra  feed  should  be  supplied. 


Fig.  90.     Self  feedei 


Fig.  91.    Automatic  water  bottle.    Fig.  92 


For  fattening  young  chickens  or  "fries,"  porridges  made  of  ground 
barley  or  buckwheat,  or  barley  meal  with  milk,  are  suitable.  The  birds' 
should  be  kept  in  subdued  light. 

For  fattening  chicks,  give  buckwheat  gruel  with  sweet  milk,  beginning 
on  the  second  or  third  day  after  hatching,  followed  with  barley  meal 
or  ground  buckwheat  after  one  or  two  days,  or  a  mixture  of  4  parts 
ground  buckwheat  and  1  part  of  cracked  corn  with  sour  milk  made  into 
a  thin  porridge.  On  the  following  four  or  five  days  some  oatmeal  mush 
may  be  given.  Beginning  with  the  seventh  day,  finely  chopped  little 
fish,  including  scales  and  entrails  (cooked),  about  1  pound  daily  for 
100  chicks  until  three  weeks  old  (2  pounds  from  3  to  6  weeks  old),  or 
fish  meal  (fat  extracted),  or  a  mixture  of  ground  dried  shrimps  and 
fresh  ground  bone.  No  water.  Feed  every  few  hours  from  6  a.  m.  to 
10  p.  m.    Keep  feeding  vessels  clean! 

So-called  "masting"  (fattening)  consists  in  part  of  "free  mast"  (vol- 
untary feeding)  and  in  part  of  "cramming."  Lean  birds  are  prevented 
from  taking  exercise  and  subjected  to  a  preparatory  process  of  feeding 
with  nitrogenous  food  (ground  buckwheat  and  barley,  or  barley  meal 
and  oatmeal  with  curdled  milk  or  curd,  meat  scraps  and  potatoes).     In 


212  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

addition  to  these,  crushed  wheat  or  oats,  oatmeal  or  barley,  etc.,  are  fed 
every  evening.  After  this  treatment  they  are  placed  in  "mast  cages"  and 
kept  in  semi-darkness  at  a  temperature  of  12°  to  15°  C.  (53.6°  to 
59°  F.). 

In  "voluntary  masting"  from  6  to  15  fowls  are  kept  in  one  cage  1^^ 
meters  long,  3^  meter  wide  and  50  to  60  cm.  high.  The  mast  feed  con- 
sists of  coarsely  ground  buckwheat  or  buckwheat  meal  with  fresh  milk, 
or  buckwheat  meal  mixed  with  barley  meal  oatmeal  or  cornmeal,  bran, 
sour  milk  or  buttermilk,  with  a  little  salt,  charcoal  and  sand,  fish  meal 
or  finely  ground  egg  shells,  oyster  shells  or  other  shells.  During  the 
last  four  or  five  days  or  the  last  week  a  teaspoonful  of  oil  or  10  grams 
of  lard  is  added  to  the  ration.  To  impart  a  spicy  taste  to  the  meat  0.1 
to  0.15  gm.  of  cinnamon  or  0.25  to  0.3  gm.  of  juniper  berries  are  added 
to  the  morning  and  evening  feed  of  each  fowl.  Feeding  times,  8  a.  m. 
and  4  p.  m.,  must  be  regularly  observed,  feeding  vessels  cleaned  before 
each  meal,  fowls  kept  free  from  vermin  (by  use  of  insect  powder),  and 
the  droppings  removed  daily  or  covered  with  ground  muck  in  a  quiet 
manner  so  as  not  to  disturb  or  excite  the  fowls.  The  entire  process 
requires  about  two  or  three  weeks. 

2.    Feeding  Ducks 

From  24  to  36  hours  after  hatching,  young  ducks  receive  feed  com- 
posed of  a  mixture  of  milk,  wheat  bread,  weighed  amounts  of  green  stuff 
(nettles,  yarrow)  and  grated  carrots  or  soaked  rice.  Beginning  with 
the  second  week  they  receive  coarsely  ground  buckwheat,  barley  or 
wheat.  Beginning  with  the  third  week,  wheat  bran  and  feed  lime  or 
ground  bone,  shrimps  or  fish  meal,  and  chopped  raw  or  cooked  horse 
meat  or  tankage.  Rye  bran  and  wheat  bran,  greens  (chopped  nettles, 
duckweed  [Lenrna]  etc.),  equal  parts  of  each,  and  5  per  cent  of  meat 
and  sand  are  mixed  prior  to  feeding. 

Beginning  with  the  sixth  week  young  ducks  receive  crumbs  of  soft 
feed  composed  of  3  parts  corn  meal,  5  parts  bran,  4  parts  feed  meal  and 
y2  part  fish  meal.  Curds,  sour  milk,  earthworms,  crushed  snails  or  May 
beetles,  lettuce  and  comfrey  are  favorite  by-feeds.  When  the  feathers 
begin  to  develop,  soaked  ground  oats,  followed  a  little  later  with  dry 
ground  oats  and  whole  grains,  are  given. 

At  first  the  young  ducklings  should  be  fed  every  two  hours,  then  four 
times  a  day,  and  beginning  with  the  sixth  week  three  times  a  day.  After 
they  have  access  to  pasture  and  ponds,  morning  and  evening  feeds  are 
sufficient. 

Rations  for  older  ducks,  in  pens,  per  head  and  per  day,  are  as  follows : 
Boiled  potatoes  1(X)  gm.  with  bran  60  gm.;  evenings,  75  gm.  of  oats  or 
barley;  at  noon,  greens,  worms,  chopped  meat  or  tankage,  15  gm.,  beets 
50  gm.,  or  the  following  ration : 


FEEDING  GEESE  213 

Ration  For  Laying  Duck,  Per  Day 

Potatoes   300  gm.   ,         Crushed  corn  or  oats 100  gm. 

Wheat  bran  65  gm.  ■*         Greens  (thistles,  nettles,  etc.)  .  .200  gm. 

Fish  meal  30  gm.  Sand 100  gm. 

Grain,  twice  a  week,  at  night. 

Free  range  with  access  to  ponds  or  streams  is  most  conducive  to  good 
results.     By-feeds,  in  addition  to  the  above,  are  usually  desirable. 

The  fattening  of  young  ducks  should  be  completed  at  the  end  of  the 
ninth  to  eleventh  week.  The  usual  feed  is  given  from  the  second  to  the 
tenth  day.  After  this  time  wheat  bran,  buckwheat  meal,  rye  meal  or 
barley  meal,  bone  meal  or  fish  meal,  charcoal,  coarse  sand  and  chopped 
greens  are  added. 

The  fattening  proper  begins  about  the  fifth  week.  The  feed  then  con- 
sists of  wheat  bran  and  barley  meal  or  rye  meal,  1  part  of  each;  steamed 
mashed  potatoes  and  greens  (comfrey),  fish  meal  and  coarse  sand,  2 
parts.  Beginning  with  the  eighth  week  the  greens  are  displaced  with 
cracklings. 

Until  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  week  feed  should  be  given  five  times 
a  day,  then  four  times,  and  finally  three  times.  Water  should  be  pro- 
vided with  each  feed.  For  forced  fattening,  ducks  are  fed  as  above  out- 
lined until  6  weeks  old,  are  then  penned  up  and  gradually  restricted  in 
voluntary  exercise  by  closer  confinement  in  semi-darkness.  In  the  course 
of  two  or  three  weeks  the  process  should  be  completed. 

They  are  fed  two  or  three  times  a  day  with  malt  meal,  barley  meal  or 
bean  meal  (coarse),  wheat  bran,  steamed  potatoes  and  some  cracklings 
in  the  form  of  soft  feed  in  addition  to  beets  and  greens.  At  night  they 
get  soaked  barley  and  always  plenty  of  water,  sand  and  some  charcoal. 
The  addition  of  oil-cake  meal,  skim  milk  or  sour  milk  is  a  common  prac- 
tice. 

3.    Feeding  Geese 

The  first  feed  for  goslings  consists  of  crumbs  of  stale  bread  with 
finely  chopped  nettles,  thistles,  lettuce  leaves  or  the  tips  of  blades  of 
grass,  and  occasionally  some  finely  chopped  boiled  egg.^^  At  the  age  of 
2  weeks  wheat  bran,  coarse  barley  meal  or  oatmeal  with  boiled  potatoes 
or  mashed  beets  and  greens  are  given.  When  the  feathers  begin  to  de- 
velop the  feed  is  changed  to  bran  and  potatoes,  with  sour  milk  and 
scalded  cracked  oats  or  a  mixture  of  oats,  barley,  buckwheat  or  com. 

Older  geese  are  given  grass,  clover  and  various  herbs  gathered  up  in 
meadows,  fields,  waysides,  etc.,  also  grains  (stubble  pasture)  and  the 
seeds  of  legumes,  beets  and  beet  leaves,  boiled  potatoes,  scalded  chaffed 
hay  and  scalded  bran.  A  daily  grain  ration  of  from  100  to  150  grams 
is  sufficient  for  one  breeding  fowl  during  the  winter.  A  free  range  is  de- 
sirable for  geese  as  well  as  for  other  fowls. 

liYoung  geese  may  be  successfully  raised  on  good  bluegrass  pasture  and  green  dandelions,  with- 
out any  other  feed  whatever.  An  ample  supply  of  fresh  water  should  be  provided.  Grain  may  be 
offered  when  the  goslings  have  attained  a  weight  of  3  to  S  pounds. — (Personal  experience  of 
translator.) 


214  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

For  fattening,  geese  are  usually  penned  up  in  September  or  October 
after  spending  the  summer  on  pastures  and  stubblefields.  When  operat- 
ing on  a  large  scale,  about  100  geese  are  placed  in  an  inclosure  of  about 
100  square  meters,  so  located  that  the  prisoners  can  not  see  nor  hear  their 
companions  that  are  still  roaming  at  large.  The  real  fattening  is  usually 
preceded  by  a  preparatory  period  of  two  weeks  during  which  they  are 
fed  on  chopped  carrots.  Owing  to  the  watery  nature  of  carrots,  drink- 
ing water  is  usually  withheld.  A  certain  amount  of  sandy  clay  is  admin- 
istered to  stimulate  digestive  activity.  The  fattening  proper  begins  with 
the  third  week.  If  the  stubble  pasture  has  been  very  good,  the  prepara- 
tory period  is  sometimes  omitted.  Oats  and  barley  are  the  chief  or 
only  feeds.  They  are  fed  either  in  the  form  of  a  mixture  throughout 
the  process,  or  oats  are  fed  exclusively  at  the  beginning  and  corn  alone 
at  the  closing  period.  Barley,  as  compared  with  oats,  produces  a  hrmer 
quality  of  fat,  which  is  very  desirable  in  geese.  It  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  make  the  change  from  the  vegetable  to  the  grain  diet  very  grad- 
ually. Every  week  one  additional  feed  of  vegetables  or  beets  is  withdrawn 
and  grain  substituted.  Sometimes  corn  or  boiled  potatoes  and  peas  with 
or  without  barley  meal  or  crushed  carrots  are  substituted  for  the  full  grain 
method  of  fattening.  To  stimulate  the  appetite  2  gm.  of  common  salt 
and  1  gm.  of  ground  black  pepper  are  added  to  each  feed,  per  individual 
goose.  The  addition  of  ^  gm.  of  antimony  to  favor  the  development  of 
fatty  livers  is  a  common  practice.  Water  and  sandy  clay  are  provided 
to  be  taken  ad  libitum.  The  fattening  period  should  be  completed  in 
one  month. 

VIII.   Rations  for  Rabbits 

During  the  first  three  weeks  the  newborn  rabbits  are  nourished  with 
the  milk  of  the  dam.  After  this  period  they  should  have  sweet  skim 
milk,  green  stuff  with  the  addition  of  hay,  followed  with  carrots  and 
beets.  Grass  ranges,  inclosed  with  wire,  are  recommended.  At  the  age 
of  3  months  the  sexes  should  be  separated.  Males  should  be  kept  singly 
or  in  pairs.    They  may  be  bred  at  the  age  of  6  to  8  months. 

Young  rabbits  should  be  fed  four  times  a  day;  later  on  only  three 
times,  and  when  mature  two  feeds  may  suffice.  The  usual  feed  consists 
of  green  stuff,  carrots,  boiled  potatoes,  and  potato  pealings  with  bran. 
The  addition  of  prepared  chalk,  phosphate  of  lime  and  common  salt  is 
recommended.  Hay  should  be  provided  in  addition  to  grass  and  other 
green  stuff.  The  evening  meal  should  be  a  little  heavier  than  the  morn- 
ing feed.  Grain  (oats  and  barley)  is  necessary  for  pregnant  or  nursing 
females  only.  Skim  milk  and  water  may  also  be  given  during  the  nursing 
period.  Otherwise  the  supply  of  water  is  adjusted  according  to  the 
water  content  of  the  rations.  If  green  feed  or  other  succulents  are  fed 
exclusively,  water  is  usually  dispensable.  To  avoid  waste  of  feed,  hay 
racks  are  convenient. 


FEEDING  FISH  215 

IX.   Feed  for  Fish 

Among  the  cultivated  or  artificially  reared  food  fish,  the  carp  is  the 
most  important.    It  is  used  as  the  basis  in  the  following  discussion. 
Fish  feeding  is  conducted  along  two  distinct  lines : 

A.  Indirect  feeding,  or  so-called  "fertilization,"  which  has  for  its 
object  the  providing  of  favorable  conditions,  including  food  material,  for 
the  growth  and  development  of  the  forms  of  life  which  constitute  the 
natural  food  of  fish,  or,  to  go  a  step  farther,  to  provide  these  condtions 
for  the  still  lower  forms  of  life  upon  which  the  latter  are  dependent. 

B.  Direct  or  artificial  feeding,  as  for  instance,  supplying  lupines  or 
fish  meal,  which  are  consumed  directly  by  the  fish. 

A.    Fertilization 

The  object  of  fertilization  is  to  favor  or  encourage  the  development 
of  the  natural  animal  or  vegetable  food  material. 

1.  Plankton,  or  pelagic  life,  constitutes  a  very  important  group  of 
these  natural  foods.  For  practical  purposes  this  is  divided  into  two 
subgroups. 

Group  1. 

a.  The  lower  plants,  of  which  the  most  important  representatives  are: 
a^.    Bacteria,  which,  as  everywhere  in  nature,  live  on  waste  animal 

and  vegetable  matter,  convert  it  into  carbonic  acid,  water  and  ammonia, 
which  in  turn  serve  as  food  for  algas  and  higher  plants.  Bacteria  also 
serve  as  food  for  Infusoria  and  similar  minute  forms  of  life. 

b^.  Algce. — These  are  the  most  important  oxygen  generators  in  the 
water,  and,  like  the  bacteria,  serve  as  food  for  low,  minute  forms  of 
life.  Among  this  group  the  common  green  fresh-water  algse  are  the 
most  common.  They  occur  on  the  bottom  of  ponds  in  long,  thick  masses 
of  interlaced  threadlike  forms  or  entwining  higher  plants.  The  gases 
which  they  liberate  tend  to  raise  them  to  the  surface  in  the  form  of 
brownish  layers  or  scum.  The  diatoms  should  also  be  mentioned  here. 
They  are  unicellular  algas  with  a  delicate  silicious  covering.  Large 
masses  of  bacteria  live  on  the  surface  of  the  algae  and  serve  in  their  turn 
as  food  for  Infusoria,  etc. 

b.  Infusoria,  Amebce  and  Rotalia.  These  live  on  bacteria  and  them- 
selves serve  as  food  for  higher  forms. 

Group  2. 
a.    Small  Crustaceans,  or  Entomostracans 

a^  Daphniidce,  Daphnids,  or  water  fleas,  characterized  by  their  mar- 
velous power  of  reproduction  (according  to  Rahmdohr  one  individual 
may  produce  one  thousand  million  oflFspring  in  60  days).  In  the  spring 
of  the  year  the  single  hard-shelled  winter  tgg  hatches  into  a  female,  in 
the  dorsal  brood  organ  of  which  a  large  number  of  small  fertile  sum- 
mer eggs  develop  in  the  course  of  two  days.     In  a  few  days  the  latter 


216 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


hatch  into  females,  which  again  lay  fertile  summer  eggs  (Fig.  93).  This 
process  of  unisexual  reproduction  (parthenogenesis)  continues  during 
the  entire  summer.  In  the  fall  of  the  year  the  summer  eggs  develop 
into  males  and  females.  The  female  now  develops  one  large  winter 
egg  in  its  dorsal  brood  organ  (Fig  94),  which  requires  fertilization 
before  it  can  develop.  The  winter  egg  is  protected  by  a  hard  shell 
against  external  influences.  It  remains  dormant  throughout  the  winter 
and  is  not  aflfected  by  freezing  temperatures.  It  seems,  in  fact,  as 
though  the  exposure  to  the  cold  of  winter  gives  additional  vigor  and 
power  of  reproduction.  This  is  one  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  draining 
fishponds  for  the  winter. 


Figs.  93  and  94.    Water  flea  {Daphnia  pulex.) 
a.  Female  with  summer  eggs;  b,  female  with  one  winter  egg. 


Feed  for  Fish 

Water  fleas  live  on  unicellular  plant  and  animal  life  and  prefer  warm, 
shallow  ponds  rich  in  organic  matter.  They  often  occur  in  enormous 
numbers  and  impart  a  distinct  color  to  the  water. 

b\  Cyclops  or  hoppers. — Jurine  has  estimated  that  a  single  pair  can 
produce  45,000,000,000  offspring  in  a  single  season.  They  feed  and 
develop  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  daphnids. 

c^.  Ostracoidea. — These  are  entomostracans  with  hard  bi-valve 
shells.     Their  habits,  etc.,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  cyclopses. 

d^  Amphipoda  or  sand  fleas. — Numerous  species  of  various  sizes 
and  habits.  Those  in  question  are  characteristic  of  this  form  of  life 
in  pure  cold  water. 


FEEDING  FISH  217 

e\  Asellus  aquaticiis,  water  louse. — Occurs  in  moderate  numbers  in 
ponds,  especially  cool  trout  ponds. 

Waterfleas  and  cyclopses  are  easily  reared  in  little  side  pools  con- 
nected with  larger  ponds.  In  the  winter  and  early  spring  these  are 
covered  with  layers  of  manure,  clay  and  compost  to  favor  their  propa- 
gation. With  the  advent  of  warm  weather,  when  the  organisms  have 
multiplied  sufficiently,  they  are  admitted  into  the  main  pond  by  a  con- 
necting channel.  Since  all  of  these  lower  forms  of  life,  but  especially 
the  water  fleas,  are  injured  by  even  slight  acid  reaction  of  the  medium 
in  which  they  are  found,  this  danger  should  be  averted  by  regular 
"working"  of  the  pond  bottoms. 

b.    The  Larvae  of  Insects 

a^.  Culex  pipiens  (stinging  gnats)  and  several  species  of  Anopheles 
(mosquitoes).  The  larvae  live  among  the  vegetation  of  shallow  pools 
and  ponds.  They  float  just  under  the  surface  of  the  water  with  their 
backs  exposed  to  the  air,  breathing  oxygen.  When  the  water  is  agi- 
tated they  may  be  seen  wriggling  to  the  bottom. 

&\  Coretha. — The  larvae  are  recognized  by  their  transparent  bodies. 
They  may  be  observed  floating  around  in  the  water,  apparently  quite 
motionless. 

c^.  Chirononms. — This  larva,  recognized  by  its  red  color,  lives  in  the 
mud  and  slime  of  foul  streams. 

d^.  Ephemera,  Cloe  (day  fly). — The  mature  insect  often  makes  its 
appearance  in  enormous  swarms.  The  larvae  require  from  two  to  three 
years   for  development. 

e'^.  Phryganeides. — The  larva  of  the  caddis  fly  inhabits  a  variety  of 
stagnant  and  flowing  waters  and  secretes  itself  in  structures  which  it 
builds  of   sand,   fragments  of  plants,  stones,   etc. 

To  encourage  the  development  of  these  insects  and  their  larvae,  Susta 
had  already  recommended  the  planting  of  vegetation  (basket  willows) 
on  the  borders  of  ponds.  Gnats  like  to  swarm  in  warm  air  but  not  in 
direct  sunlight. 

II.  Spawn  and  the  young  progeny  of  Mollusca,  among  which  might 
be  mentioned  the  small  bivalves  which  are  usually  found  attached  to 
sticks,  stones  and  similar  obects ;  Limnsea  or  pond  snails,  which  are  a 
favorite  food  of  fish;  Planorbis  (snails  with  discoidal  shells),  and  Pal- 
udina  (pond  snails  with  operculated  shell).  They  subsist  chiefly  upon 
vegetation  and  slime  and  do  not  molest  other  animal  life  which  serves 
as  food  for  carp.  When  not  present  in  carp  ponds  they  should  be 
introduced.  Lime  spread  over  and  worked  into  the  bottom  of  ponds 
favors   their   rapid   development. 

To  promote  the  development  of  the  lower  forms  of  life  which  serve 
as  food  for  fish,  pond  fertilization  is  practiced.  The  primary  object  of 
fertilization  is  to  furnish  food  for  the  lower  pond  flora,  although  some 


218  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

of  the  organic   fertilizers   used  supply   enormous  numbers   of   bacteria 
which  serve  as  food  for  Infusoria,  etc.,  and  even  the  Mollusca. 

The  character  of  the  fertilizers  used  is  much  the  same  as  that  of 
the  manures  applied  to  fields  and  meadows.  Since  the  supply  of  nat- 
ural manures  is  usually  limited,  chemical  manures  are  resorted  to,  much 
the  same  as  in  agricultural  operations,  viz.,  lime,  potash,  nitrogen  (am- 
monia) and  phosphoric  acid.  The  other  elements,  like  sodium,  iron, 
magnesia,  sulphur,  silicic  acid,  etc.,  are  usually  present  in  sufficient 
quantity  and  need  not  be  supplied  artificially.  Carbon,  which  is  neces- 
sary for  the  support  of  all  life,  is  usually  supplied  in  abundance,  when 
nature  is  not  interfered  with,  but  when  artificial  fertilization  is  practiced 
this  important  element  may  be  reduced  below  the  minimum  required, 
as  compared  with  the  proportion  of  other  available  food,  and  thus  coun- 
teract the  benefits  of  fertilization  (Zuntz,  Gensny).  When  artificial 
fertilization  is  practiced  care  must  be  observed  that  all  the  nutrient 
elements  or  substances  are  supplied  in  sufficient  quantity,  or  rather  in 
the  relative  proportions  required,  thus  maintaining  the  chemico-physico- 
biological  equilibrium,  or  restoring  it,  as  the  case  may  be  CDemol). 
Practical  pond  or  laboratory  experiments  may  be  conducted  to  obtain  the 
necessary  information  upon  which  to  proceed  with  the  fertilizing  oper- 
ation, much  the  same  as  in  agriculture. 

According  to  Zuntz-Knanthe,  tlie  laboratory  experiments  for  "bonitizing"  fish 
ponds  are  conducted  as  follows:  The  pond  water  in  question  is  filtered  through 
paper  filters  and  one-half  liter  of  the  filtered  water  placed  in  each  of  14  flasks  of  ^ 
liter  capacity.  These  flasks  are  inoculated  with  one-celled  green  algae  (e.g.,  Bacillus 
profococcus).  which  are  easily  obtained  from  ponds  with  the  aid  of  dipping  nets. 
After  inoculation  the  flasks  are  treated  with  various  solutions  of  nutrient  salts, 
etc.,  combined  in  definite  proportions.  Zuntz  uses  twelve  different  solutions,^'  4 
drops  of  each  solution  being  added  to  a  flask.  All  flasks  are  then  placed  under  the 
same  conditions  of  temnerature  and  light  and  kept  under  observation.  After  deter- 
mining which  of  the  flasks  produces  the  most  rapid  or  luxuriant  growth,  further 
trials  are  made  to  determine  the  proper  concentration  of  the  solution  in  question. 
After  the  algse  have  reached  a  certain  degree  of  develooment,  2  daphnids  are  placed 
into  each  flask,  to  test  the  effect  of  the  fertilizers  on  the  development  of  these  very 
important  food  organisms.  In  the  course  of  from  8  to  10  days  several  generations 
of  daphnids  will  have  developed  and  the  effects  of  the  different  solutions  become 
very  apparent. 

Zuntz's  method  above  described,  while  not  without  certain  imperfec- 
tions, gives  results  that  constitute  a  valuable  basis  for  practical  work. 
The  manifold  and  complicated  conditions  that  influence  the  biological 
processes  in  ponds  (light,  temperature,  precipitation,  currents,  carbon 
dioxid  and  bacterial  content)   cannot  be  reproduced  in  the  laboratory. 

In  the  artificial  fertilization  of  ponds  it  is  necessary  to  have  knowl- 
edge of  the  minimum,  optimum  and  maximum  amounts   of  fertilizing 

12The  followinET  solutions,  with  the  exceptions  noted,  are  all  of  5  per  cent  strength  (No.  9,  2 
per  cent;  No.s.  11  and  12  are  used  undiluted,  prepared  according  to  directions):  1.  Glauber  salts 
(sodium  sulphate).  2.  Di-basic  sodium  phosnhnte.  3.  Chile  .saltpeter  (sodium  nitrate).  4.  Com- 
mon salt  (sodium  chlorid).  S.  Potassium  sulphate,  fi.  Ammonium  sulphate.  7.  Calcium  chlorid. 
R.  Ensom  salt  (maenesnim  sulphate).  9  Conperas  (ferro-sulphate) .  10.  Milk  of  lime  (caustic 
lime).  11.  Decomposed  urine  of  animals  (linuid  manure).  12.  Straw  infusion  (10  grams  of 
straw  treated  with  100  grams  of  boiling  water,  supernatant  liquid  poured  ofF  after  twenty-four 
hours  and  preserved  for  use). 


FEEDING  FISH  219 

elements  that  can  be  applied  to  advantage,  or  with  safety,  as  the  case 
may  be.  An  excess  of  certain  nutrients  may  result  in  actual  harm 
(poisoning).  It  is  known,  however,  that  the  potash  salts  are  the  only 
ones  that  are  dangerous  in  this  respect.  Even  excesses  of  nitrogen  and 
phosphorus  salts  do  no  harm,  while  such  an  eventuality  is  partly  guarded 
against  by  the  high  cost  of  these  elements. 

Sewage,  also,  can  be  used  with  the  best  success  for  the  fertilization 
of  fish  ponds.  This  practice  is  attended  with  the  additional  virtue  of 
saving  artificial  manures  and  assisting  in  water  purification  (Hofer, 
Strell  and  R.  Demoll). 

To  avoid  putrefaction  processes,  sewage  used  for  this  purpose  should 
previously  be  clarified  and  thus  freed  from  50  to  60  per  cent  of  sediment 
and  suspended  matter. 

Any  method  of  sewage  disposal  which  does  not  require  retention  of 
the  sewage  in  the  settling  tanks  longer  than  24  hours  is  suitable  for 
this  purpose,  provided  that  the  settling  tanks  are  so  constructed  that 
daily  removal  (or  removal  at  two  or  three  day  intervals  at  the  most) 
is  practicable.  This  is  necessary  to  prevent  putrefaction  of  the  pond 
water.  In  the  pond  fish  industry  at  Strassburg,  where  sewage  is  utilized 
as  the  fertilizing  element,  the  preliminary  clarification  is  conducted  suc- 
cessively with  a  coarse  rake,  a  Geiger  screen  paddle  wheel,  and  a  Neu- 
stadt  settling  basin  12.5  meters  long  and  3.6  meters  wide  with  a  capacity 
of  about  100  cubic  meters.  A  similar  plant  in  Amberg  employs  3  Kremer 
apparatuses  for  each  10,000  inhabitants. 

After  the  sewage  has  been  subjected  to  the  processes  above  outlined 
it  is  diluted  with  about  two  parts  of  pure  water  from  streams.  Thus 
diluted,  the  sewage  is  discharged  into  the  ponds  by  means  of  a  number 
of  wooden  conduits.  In  Strassburg,  these  conduits  are  arranged  horse- 
shoe fashion  around  approximately  one-third  of  the  front  shore  line  of 
each  pond.  They  are  placed  about  10  meters  apart  and  discharge  their 
contents  through  fan-shaped  distributors  about  2^  meters  long.  To 
favor  oxygenation  the  distributors  are  so  arranged  that  the  water  is 
discharged  in  the  form  of  cascades  or  against  so-called  splashboards. 
On  hot  summer  nights  and  during  sultry  periods  preceding  storms  the 
diluted  sewage  supply  is  shut  off  and  fresh  water  is  admitted  according 
to  needs. 

A  water  area  of  one  hectare  (2.471  acres)  is  required  for  the  sewage 
from  every  2,000  population,  estimating  100  liters  per  inhabitant  per  day. 
The  rate  of  discharge  into  the  fishponds  is  so  regulated  that  the  sewage 
water  remains  in  the  ponds  about  6  days.  During  this  time,  even  in 
winter,  the  water  is  purified  to  a  degree  that  approaches  ordinary  river 
water.  The  nitrogenous  substances  present  in  the  "clarified"  sewage 
water  are  reduced  to  the  extent  of  from  60  to  70  per  cent  and  the 
bacteria  from  85  to  92  per  cent. 

The  ponds  in  Strassburg  are  100  to  150  meters  long,  40  to  50  meters 
wide  and  0.5  meter  deep.     Before  they  are  filled  with  water  they  are 


220  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

planted  with  aquatic  plants  (Ceratophyllum  or  hornwort,  Myriophyl- 
lum  or  water  milfoil,  Ranunculus  or  crowfoot).  These  are  started  in 
pure  water  which  is  inoculated  with  the  necessary  lower  forms  of  plant 
and  animal  life.  The  clarified  sewage  water  is  not  added  for  several 
weeks. 

In  the  management  of  sewage  fishponds  putrefaction  processes  must 
be  kept  in  absolute  check  by  suitable  supplies  of  pure  water  and  oxygen. 
The  oxygen  content  of  the  pond  water  must  also  be  controlled.  For 
carp  the  water  should  contain  3  c.c.  of  oxygen  per  liter  of  water.  The 
presence  of  only  0.5  c.c.  per  liter  causes  asphyxiation  of  the  carp. 

According  to  Hofer,  the  approximate  oxygen  content  of  water  is  easily  determined 
in  the  following  simple  manner : 

Take  a  flask  with  accurately  fitted  ground  stopper  and  %  liter  capacity  and  fill  to 
overflowing  with  the  water  to  be  examined.  Insert  immediately  (closed  and  down- 
ward) a  2  c.c.  glass  tube  filled  with  a  25  per  cent  solution  of  manganous  chlorid.  In 
a  similar  manner  insert  a  second  tube  filled  with  a  30  per  cent  solution  of  caustic 
soda  containing  10  per  cent  of  potassium  iodid.  Keep  the  water  flask  stoppered  at 
all  times  except  at  the  moment  when  each  tube  is  inserted.  Observe  care  that  no 
air  bubbles  are  retained  in  the  flask!  Shake  the  flask  for  several  minutes  so  that 
the  contents  of  the  glass  tubes  become  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  water  in  the 
flask.  A  dirty  white  precipitate  of  manganous  hydroxid  is  formed.  The  latter  has 
the  property  of  combining  with  oxygen  and  forming  a  brown  precipitate  of  pyro- 
lusite  (Mn02).  According  to  the  amount  of  oxygen  in  the  water,  this  precipitate 
assumes  different  shades  of  brown.  If  the  water  contains  only  0.5  c.c.  of  oxygen 
per  liter  (carp  asphyxiate  under  this  condition)  the  precipitate  remains  white.  If 
the  water  contains  only  3  or  4  c.c.  of  oxygen  per  liter  (this  is  just  sufficient  to 
prevent  asphyxiation  of  Salmonidae — trout  and  allied  species)  the  precipitate  be- 
comes yellow.  If  the  water  contains  7  to  8  c.c.  of  oxygen  to  the  liter  (normal  oxy- 
gen content)  the;  precipitate  becomes  a  pronounced  brown.  The  Bavarian  Bio- 
logical Experiment  Station  for  Pisciculture,  in  Munich,  has  issued  a  color  scale  to 
aid  in  recognizing  and  valuing  the  different  shades  of  color  in  this  test.  This  simple 
method  of  oxygen  determination  can,  of  course,  also  be  applied  successfully  in  the 
problem  of  live  fish  transportation,  wintering  fish  under  ice,  etc. 

Two-year-old  carp  are  best  adapted  for  stocking  sewage  ponds  where 
table  fish  are  desired.  In  Strassburg,  Koenigsbrunn  and  Bruenn  the 
gain  per  hectare  of  pond  surface  is  estimated  at  1,200  pounds.  DemoU 
also  recommends  stocking  with  younger  carp  and  artificial  breeding. 
Rainbow  trout  and  tench  (Tinea  vulgaris — European  species  allied  to 
carp)  may  be  planted  as  secondary  crops.  These  fish  are  exceedingly 
palatable,  but  tench  should  be  placed  in  fresh  water  ponds  or  traps  for 
some  time  before  marketing,  which  should  also  be  done  under  other 
conditions. 

The  extensive  establishments  at  Strassburg  and  Amberg,  in  addition 
to  the  sewage  ponds  above  described,  are  provided  with  fresh-water 
ponds,  spawning  ponds,  reservoirs,  etc.,  with  all  facilities  for  convenient 
access  in  winter.  An  extensive  duck-breeding  establishment  is  also 
maintained  and  considered  of  great  importance  in  connection  with  fish 
culture  in  sewage  ponds.  These  ponds  become  infested  with  duckweeds 
(species  of  Lemna)  which  mukiply  rapidly  and  often  cover  the  entire 
water  surface  with  their  growth,  shutting  out  light  and  air,  and  keeping 
the  water  too  cold.         These  plants  are  a  favorite  food  of  ducks. 


FEEDING  FISH  221 

Sewage  fishponds  serve  the  additional  function  of  purifying  the  water. 
They  accomplish  this  more  effectively  than  any  other  method,  especially 
the  irrigating  system  of  sewage  disposal,  and  require  considerably  less 
area  than  the  latter.  One  hectare  of  sewage  pond  area  suffices  for  the 
disposal  of  the  sewage  of  a  population  of  2,000,  while  one  hectare  of 
irrigation  surface  is  required  for  every  250  inhabitants  (Darmstadt 
180,  Berlin  240,  Magdeburg  440).  All  other  systems  of  sewage  dis- 
posal have  the  objectionable  feature  of  being  unproductive  or  unre- 
munerative. 

The  annual  sewage  water  of  the  city  of  Munich,  after  preliminary 
clarification,  contains — 

3,200,000  kg.  of  nitrogen, 
577,000  kg.  of  phosphoric  acid, 
637,000  kg.  of  potash. 

It  has  been  planned  to  conserve  this  waste  by  means  of  fish  culture. 
The  fresh  suspended  matter  or  sludge  contains — 
400,000  kg.  of  nitrogen, 
224,000  kg.  of  phosphoric  acid, 
110,000  kg.  of  potash. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  mix  this  sludge  with  the  coarser  rubbish  or 
"mull"  and  use  it  for  fertilizing,  and  thus  reclaiming,  the  worthless 
heath  regions  and  moors  of  the  country  surrounding  Munich  (Garchung, 
Froettmaning,  Dachau,  Schleissheim,  Erding,  Aubing)  and  converting 
them  into  valuable  agricultural  land. 

It  is  evident  that  the  utilization  of  sewage  in  fishponds  has  a  promis- 
ing future. 

B.    Artificial  Feeding 

An  increase  in  the  yield  of  fish  from  ponds,  by  means  of  artificial 
feeding,  is  possible  or  practicable  under  certain  conditions  only.  Feed- 
ing pays  only  in  cultivated  ponds  with  a  deficient  flora.  Ponds  overrun 
with  weeds  cause  too  much  loss  of  feed.  Again,  densely  shaded  ponds 
with  low  water  temperature  may  affect  the  results  of  artificial  feeding 
to  the  extent  of  50  per  cent.  Warm  water  and  an  abundant  supply  of 
oxygen  favor  the  effects  of  artificial  feeding.  Artificial  feeding  should 
not  be  practiced  with  the  water  temperature  below  57°  or  above  77°F. 
Hence  the  maxim,  when  feeding  for  high  production,  to  "feed  with 
thermometer  in  hand."  Carp  practically  stop  feeding  at  a  temperature 
of  8°C.  (46.4°F.).  In  winter,  therefore,  food  should  be  given  sparingly 
and  only  sufficient  to  prevent  starvation,  or  as  much  as  they  will  eat. 
Excess  of  food,  beyond  what  is  actually  consumed,  only  serves  to  be- 
foul the  water.  The  warmer  the  water,  the  more  active  is  metaboli- 
zation  in  the  body  of  the  carp,  more  food  is  consumed  and  more  di- 
gested. At  the  same  time  the  requirement  for  oxygen  is  raised.  This 
is  an  important  point  to  consider.     In  order  to  avoid  losses  from  lack 


222  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

of  oxygen,  fish  should  not  be  fed  in  the  evening,  because  plants  cease 
giving  off  oxygen  into  the  water  on  the  approach  of  darkness.  The 
oxygen  supply  in  water  also  tends  to  become  less  on  the  approach  of 
storms.  The  carp  wiil  instinctively  refuse  to  feed  and  the  food  supply 
will  spoil  (Knauthe). 

As  a  rule  only  "storiers"  or  "fries"  are  fed.  Smaller  fish  are  fed 
very  limited  amounts  or  not  at  all.  Fish  intended  for  breeding  should 
receive  natural  food  as  far  as  this  is  possible. 

Fishponds  are  stocked  with  carp  one  year  old,  of  80  to  100  grams 
weight.  The  addition  of  tenches,  especially  in  mud-bottomed  ponds,  is 
recommended.  Tenches  are  more  industrious  scavengers  than  carp, 
searching  the  bottom  of  the  pond  for  the  leavings  of  the  latter. 

Ponds  supplied  with  artificial  food  may  be  stocked  from  three  to 
four  times  as  heavily  as  under  natural  food  conditions.  All  fish,  how- 
ever, require  natural  food  in  addition  to  that  supplied  artificially. 

In  general,  fish  are  fed  during  the  summer  only,  but  daily.  Weather 
conditions  being  favorable  about  20  per  cent  of  the  entire  summer,  allow- 
ance is  given  during  the  month  of  June,  30  per  cent  during  July,  35 
per  cent  during  August  and  15  per  cent  during  September.  The  food 
should  be  distributed  over  moderate  sized  areas  of  the  pond.  For 
hygienic  reasons  and  as  a  precaution  against  poaching,  the  feeding  areas 
should  be  changed  frequently.  Overfeeding  should  be  avoided;  the 
practice  is  wasteful  and  may  be  detrimental. 

Feedingstuffs   for  carp  are: 

1.    Vegetable.    The  most  important  of  these  are: 

a.  Lupines,  especially  the  yellow  species.  These  are  cracked  and 
slightly  soaked  before  feeding,  but  not  treated  for  removal  of  the  bitter 
principle.  From  300  to  400  pounds  of  lupines  are  necessary  to  produce 
100  pounds  of  carp  meat  (feed  coefficient  3 — 4); 

b.  Other  leguminous  seeds  (peas,  vetches,  beans,  lentils,  etc.). 
Their  effect  and  value  is  similar  to  that  of  lupines. 

c.  Indian  corn,  which  is  fed  in  the  same  manner  as  lupines.  Its 
high  fat  content  leads  to  excessive  fat  deposit  in  the  carp,  which  is  gen- 
erally regarded  as  objectionable,  making  them  more  susceptible  to  at- 
tack by  disease,  especially  in  winter  ponds.  From  400  to  500  pounds 
of  corn  are  required  to  make  100  pounds  of  carp  meat. 

d.  Other  grains  (barley,  wheat,  oats,  rye,  etc.).  They  resemble 
corn  in  effects  produced,  and  in  value. 

e.  Potatoes.  These  are  fed  raw  or  steamed.  Their  food  value 
is  low,  from  20  to  30  cwt.  being  required  to  produce  1  cwt.  of  carp 
meat.     They  are  usually  supplied  only  as  by-feeds. 

/.  Brewers'  grains,  malt  sprouts  and  molasses.  Usually  supplied 
as  by-feeds  only. 

g.  Fungi.  Even  those  that  are  toxic  for  human  beings  may  be 
consumed  by  fish  without  harm   (Klimmer), 


FEEDING  FISH  223 

2.  Animal  f eedingstuffs  : 

a.  Meat  meal  or  tankage.  American  tankage  is  rather  deficient 
in  lime  (p.  124)  ;  the  addition  of  5  per  cent  of  feed  lime  or  10  to  20  per 
cent  fish  meal  is  recommended.  German  tankage  (meat  meal)  contains 
more  lime,  and  additional  mineral  matter  is  unnecessary.  Meals  of  good 
quality  should  be  soft,  mealy,  and  light  brown  in  color.  Dark,  granu- 
lar meals  have  been  overheated;  they  are  hard  to  digest  and  are  apt 
to  produce  intestinal  trouble.  From  1^  to  2  cwt.  of  tankage  will  pro- 
duce 2  cwt.  of  carp  meat. 

b.  Fish  meal.  Fish  meals  of  good  quality  have  high  nutritive 
value  and  contain  every  necessary  element  for  the  building  up  of  the 
tissues  of  the  fish. 

c.  Blood  meal.  This  closely  resembles  fish  meal  in  properties  and 
value. 

d.  Dairy  by-products   (sour  milk,  whey,  curd)   serve  as  by-feeds. 

e.  May  bugs  or  cock  chasers  (Melolontha  vulgaris),  caterpillars, 
the  larvae  of  flies,  etc.     These  also  serve  as  by-feeds. 

3.  Feed  mixtures.  The  various  meals  can  not  be  fed  as  such;  they 
would  be  carried  away  by  the  wind.  They  must  be  worked  up  into 
solid  masses  before  feeding.     Favorite  mixtures  follow: 

1.  2. 

Tankage    1  part  Fish   meal    1  part 

Fish   meal    1  part  Tankage    1  part 

Rye  meal   or   flour 1  part  Boiled  mashed  potatoes 4-5  parts 

These  ingredients  are  mixed,  stirred  or 

up  with  water,  cooked  to  make  a  thick  Fish  meal  and  tankage,  of  each  1  part 

gruel  or  paste  and  molded  into   little  Corn  meal  2-3  parts 

balls.  Prepared  as  directed  under  No.  1. 


224  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

APPENDIX 

By  way  of  appendix  a  few  dietetic  feed  mixtures  are  given  below. 
They  are  intended  for  horses  at  hard  work,  for  pregnant  and  nursing 
mares,  stud  horses  during  the  breeding  season,  and  for  intestinal 
weakness. 

1  kg.  bran  and  2  kg.  oats  thoroughly  mixed  with  ^4  hter  of  boiled 
flaxseed  and  a  little  salt,  then  scalded  with  1  to  2  liters  of  boiling  water; 
let  stand  for  12  hours.     Feed  for  one  horse.     Or: 

Flaxseed    y^  liter 

Barley     ^  liter 

Oats    2      liters 

Bran    4      liters 

Boil  the  barley  and  flaxseed  in  3  liters  of  water  and  while  still  hot 
add  the  oats  and  bran,  stir  thoroughly,  let  stand  for  12  hours  and  feed 
to  one  horse.    To  retain  the  heat,  protect  vessel  with  woolen  cloth. 

This  mixture  should  be  given  once  a  week. 
For  run-down  animals  or  convalescents : 

Wheat  or   rye 2      liters 

Linseed  meal  Yz  liter 

Cooked  beans    3^  liter 

Add  three  liters  of  boiling  water  and  soak  for  12  hours.     Or: 

Boiled   oats    2      liters 

Linseed  meal   j^  liter 

Barley  meal   Yz  liter 

Chopped  carrots   2      kg. 

Add  4  liters  of  boiling  water,  etc. 
For  anemic  conditions : 

Yellow   oxid  of   iron 10  gm.   in    1   liter 

Rye  soaked  in  water  24  hours, 

Crushed  oats 2  liters 

Potassium  carbonate 1  tablespoonful 

For  chronic  gastric  or  intestinal  catarrh,  tendency  to  colic,  etc. : 

Oats   2  liters 

Bran   150  gm. 

Sugar 500  gm.   (or  molasses  1  kg.) 

Warm  water 3  to  4  liters 

If  necessary,  laxatives  (Glauber  salts)  diuretics  or  tonics  may  be 
added. 


COMPOSITION,  VALUE,  DIGESTIBLE  ALBUMEN,  ETC.  225 

Table  I. 

Composition,  Value,  Digestible  Albumen  Content,  Starch  Value  and  Albumen- 
Starch  Value  Ration  of  Feeding  Stuffs.i^ 
(Copyrighted) 

Crude  Digestible  ^ 

Nutrients  .  Nutrients         .     g 

.  '  ;    -i  .      ^1 

^  -  JO        2        V  ^  ci!«« 

Feeding  Stuffs  £  ^(2£„-mP4        -^^S         fe-^        ^g-^ 


I.    Green  Forage 

Grasses  i Per  Cent 


Grass,  just  before  bloom.. 75.0    6.0  2.12.0  0.4     9.1     3.9  87       1.5         13.1     1:8.7 

(1.3-2.3)    (10-13.5) 

Pasture    80.0    4.0  2.0  2.5  0.4    7.3    2.6  91       1.7         11.1     1 :  6.5 

Corn,   European  seed 80.6     5.6  1.2  1.0  0.3     6.7     3.183      0.6  9.1     1:15.2 

b.  Clovers  and  Legumes. 

Red  Clover,  ^     ^ 

beginning  of  bloom 81.0     5.2  1.6  2.5  0.5     6.3     3.0  86       1.7         10.2     1:  6 

(1.4-2.1)      (9-10) 

Alfalfa,  before  bloom 76.0    6.8  2.3  3.2  0.4    6.3     2.9  79      1.7  9.1     1 

c.  Other  Forage  Plants. 
Buckwheat,  in  bloom 83.7     4.3  1.11.6  0.3     5.2     2.5  87       1.1  8.1     1 

d.  Leaves  and  herbs. 
Sugar-beet  tops  and  leaves  83.8     1.6  4.8  1.7  0.1     6.6     1.2  84       1.4  8.7     1 

II.  Silage. 
Sugar-beet  tops  and  leaves  77.0     3.4  7.4  1.5  0.3     7.2    2.5  91       0.2  9.5     1 

III.  Hay. 

a.  Meadow  Hay  and  Grasses. 

Good  Meadow   Hay 14.3  26.3  6.2  5.4  1.0  25.7  15.0  67      3.8        31.0     1:  8.2 

(2.5-6.5)    (19-40.5) 

b.  Clovers  and  Legumes. 

Good  red  clover 16.5  24.0  6.0  8.5  1.7  26.0  11.3  70      5.5        31.9     1 :  5.8 

(4.0-7.0)   (25-35.6) 

c.  Foliage,  herbs,  leaves. 

Leavesoftrees,endof  July    16.0  14.2  7.0  6.2  2.4  32.5     5.3  82       3.7         37.7     1:10.2 

i3With  the  permission  of  the  publishers,  Paul  Parey,  Berlin,  tbese  tables  have  been  copied  from 
Kellner,  "Die  Emaehrung  der  Landwirtschaftlichen  Nutztiere,"  8th  edition,  1919.  The  author 
takes  this  opportunity  to  express  again  his  sincere  thanks  for  this  privilege.  For  the  sake  of 
convenience  the  author  has  added  the  ratio  of  the  digestible   albumen  to  the  starch  value. 


5.4 

7.4 

5.1 

47.5 


226  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

Table  I. 
Composition,  Digestibility,  Starch  Value,  etc.,  of  Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 


Crude  Digestible 

Nutrients  Nutrients 


Feeding  Stuffs 


> 


IV.  Straw.                IS      I  ^1^  I    ^W  II       ^^       «il    ^-2^1 

a.  Cereal  straw.               ^       u  <    uPh  u    ^w    u  >C1      Q<       ot>W    5<oq« 

« Per  Cent  s 

Oat  straw 14.3  28.7  5.7     1.3  0.5  16.5  20.9  43       1.0         17.0     1:17.0 

Spring  cereal  straw, 

medium   14.3  39.0  4.1     1.2  0.4  18.5  21.1  46       1.0        18.8     1:18.8 

Winter  rye  straw  ....  14.3  44.0  4.1     0.6  0.412.922.0  30      0.4        10.6     1:26.5 

Winter  wheat  straw..  14.3  40.8  4.8     0.2  0.4  13.3  20.4    32        ..         10.9     

b.  Legume  straw. 

Legume  straw 16.0  38.0  4.5     3.8  0.4  18.2  15.4  41  3.0-3.8  15.2-19.2  1 :  5.1 

V.  Chaff. 

a.  Cereals. 

Oats  13.8  26.7  10.5     1.9  0.8  19.9  13.6  79      1.4        28.6     1:20.4 

Rye    14.3  44.1  7.7     1.1  0.4  11.3  22.0  63      0.7        22.0     1:31.4 

Wheat    16.0  30.4  10.1     1.4  0.5  16.7  14.6  74      0.9        24.3     1:27.0 

b.  Legumes. 

Beans 15.0  33.5  6.3    5.2  1.0  21.114.4  53      4.0        21.8     1:5.5 

VI.  Roots  and  Tubers.^* 

Potatoes,  medium  ....75.0    0.7  1.1     1.1  ..   18.9      ..  100  0.1-0.2       19.0     1:19.0 

(13-25) 

Potatoes,  dried   12.0    2.3  3.9    2.4  ..   70.0    0.3  100       1.6        71.8     1:98.7 

Beets,  medium   88.0    0.9  1.1     0.8  ..     8.3     0.3  72      0.1          6.3     1:63.0 

(S.0-7.4) 

VII.  Grains  and  Seeds. 

1.  Cereal  grains. 

Barley,  medium   14.3     3.9    2.5     6.6     1.9  62.4     1.3     99      6.1  72.0     1:11.8 

(S.9-6.S)  (66-76) 

Barley    (feed  barley).  14.3     0.5     2.6    8.8     2.1  56.7     1.1     98      8.0  67.9     1:  8.5 

Oats,  medium  13.3  10.3    3.1    8.0    4.0  44.8    2.6    95  1:8.3 

(7.2-9.2)  (55-59.7) 

Corn,  medium 13.0    2.2     1.3     7.1     3.9  65.7     1.3  100      6.6  81.5     1:12.2 

Rye,  medium  13.4     1.9    2.0    9.6     1.163.9     1.0    95       8.7  71.3     1:8.2 

(7-11.5)  (66-74) 

Wheat,  medium   13.4     1.9     1.7  10.2     1.2  63.5    0.9     95       9.0  71.3     1:7.9 

(7.7-11)  (66-73) 

2.  Legume  seeds. 

Field  beans    14.3  7.1  3.2  22.1  1.2  44.1     4.1  97  19.3  66.6  1:3.4 

Peas   14.0  5.4  2.8  19.4  1.0  49.9    2.5  98  16.9  68.6  1 :  4.1 

Lupines,  yellow   14.0  14.1  3.8  34.4  3.8  21.9  12.7  94  30.6  67.3  1:2.2 

Lupines,  blue,  white.. 14.0  11.2  2.9  26.3  5.2  31.2  10.1  96  23.3  71.0  1:  3.0 

3.  Oil  seeds. 

Flaxseed   7.1     5.5    3.8  19.4  34.7  18.3     1.8    99     18.1      119.2     1:6.6 

i^For  the  sake  of  uniformity  with  the  other  feeding  stuffs,  the  sugar  content  of  the  sugar- 
containing  root  crops  has  not  been  converted  into  the  usual  nitrogen-free  extract.  The  sugar 
content  is  expressed  merely  in  its  starch  value  and  in  its  "value"  number,  which  latter  indicates 
its  lower  "production  value." 


COMPOSITION,  VALUE,  DIGESTIBLE  ALBUMEN,  ETC.  227 

Table  I.  Composition,  Digestibility,  Starch  Value,  etc.,  of  Feeding  Stu£fs.— Cont'd 

Crude  Digestible  ^ 

Nutrients  Nutrients  g 


Feeding  stuffs                                  £  ^  (2       „«  E         >iS        o-^5g> 

«        "§  -S    Is  2    '^x  2  -11  .^1  S'^&.S'lS'^ 

^         U  <     UfM  o     ^W  u  >!3P<  w>W  P<cw« 
VIII.  Commercial  Products 

a.  Milling  by-products  ^  ^      ^      ^      ^        ^ 

%      %  %    %  %     %  %     %     %     %        % 

Barley  bran 10.5     8.5  5.0  12.5  3.149.5  1.7  96  11.4  66.0  1:5.8 

Rice  feed  meal 12.6     8.0  10.2     6.8  70.2  36.2  2.0  100     6.0  68.4  1:11.6 

Rye  bran    12.5     5.2  4.5  12.5  2.4  42.9  1.7  79  10.8  46.9  1 :  4.3 

Wheat  bran   (coarse) 13.2  10.2  5.9  11.3  3.0  37.1  2.6  11    9.1  42.6  1:  4.7 

b.  By-products  from  the 
manufacture  of  starch 
and  sugar. 

Potato   pulp,   dry 14.0     8.8  5.5      ..  ..   56.6  2.1  95      ..   55.8 

c.  By-products  from  the 

manufacture  of  sugar.  ^  ^ ,                    .  .,  ^  - 

Beet  pulp,  fresh 93.0     1.4  0.3     0.3  ..     4.0  1.0  94    0.3     5.0  1:16.7 

Beet  pulp,  dry 11.2  17.6  4.0    4.1  ..50.4  12.7  78     3.6  51.9  1:14.4 

Molasses,i5  common  21.9      ..  7.2     5.4  ..54.9  ..  87      ..48.0 

d.  By-products  of  brewing 
and  distilling  industries. 

Brewers'  grains,  fresh 76.2     5.1  1.2     Z.l  1.5     6.6  2.0  86     3.5  12.7  1:3.6 

Brewers'  grains,  dried 9.0  16.0  4.6  15.1  6.6  25.0  1.1  84  14.1  50.3  1:  3.6 

Distillery  grains,  dry 7.2  14.6  3.2  13.8  d.Z  29.9  7.0  84  12.9  51.3  1:  4.0 

Yeast  residue,  extracted. ..  12.1     0.1  5.2  42.7  1.1  24.8  ..  100  40.5  65.0  1:  1.6 

Potato  slop,  fresh 94.3     0.6  0.7    0.6  ..     2.2  0.1  93     0.5     2.6  1:5.2 

Potato  slop,  dry 10.0     9.5  11.7  12.2  1.8  20.4  2.0  90    9.4  31.2  1:3.3 

Corn  slop,  dry 8.6  10.2  2.2  18.2  9.7  28.1  6.8  88  14.9  61.2  1:  3.7 

Malt  sprouts  (light  color).  12.0  12.3  7.5  18.5  1.1  31.8  6.8  75  11.4  38.7  1:  3.4 

A      Oil     C3,lcCS 

Linseed  cake  and  meal 10.5  25.0  7.2  18.1  6.1  13.4  4.0  84  17.1  39.2  1:  2.3 

Linseed  cake  and  meal, 

decorticated   8.0     7.5  7.0  39.7  8.4  15.3  2.6  97  38.9  73.2  1:1.8 

Peanut  cake  meal  rufisque.   9.0     4.4  4.5  46.7  6.3  20.6  0.5  98  45.2  77.5  1:  1.7 

Hemp  cake  12.0  20.2  8.0  23.9  9.0  10.3  1.6  89  22.6  49.0  1 :  2.2 

Cocoanut  cake 10.5  14.7  6.2  16.7  8.2  32.1  9.3  100  16.3  76.5  1 :  4.7 

Linseed  cake  11.0     8.7  6.5  28.8  7.9  25.4  4.3     97  27.2  71.8  1 :  2.6 

Poppyseed  cake   11.5  11.2  11.0  28.2  11.2  11.8  5.6  95  26.6  66.2  1:  2.5 

Palmseed   cake    9.7  23.8  4.0  13.5  1.1  30.0  9.3  100  13.1  70.2  1:  5.4 

Palmseed  meal,  extracted. .  10.9  25.4  4.3  13.8  1.5  36.4  14.0  100  13.3  66.0  1:  4.3 

Rape  cake  10.0  11.1  IH  21 A  8.1  22.3  0.9    95  23.0  61.1  1:  2.7 

Sesame  cake 9.5     6.8  10.7  36.6  11.8  14.6  5.0    97  35.5  79.4  1:2.1 

Soy-bean  cake  meal 11.2     7.0  6.1  39.2  4.4  25.6  5.5  96  38.4  73.4  1:  1.9 

Soy-bean  cake  meal, 

extracted    11.5     1  .Z  6.5  46.6  1.4  27.5  7.2    96  40.7  73.0  1:1.8 

Sunflower  cake   9.2  14.0  6.5  33.5  9.9  16.0  3.6     95  30.5  68.1  1:  2.2 

Animal  Products.  ^     ,  ^ 

Fish  meal,  poor  in  fat 12.8      ..  32.6  47.3  1.6      ..  ..100  43.6  44.0  1:  1.0 

Cadaver  meal 7.0    2.7  22.0  39.5  15.8      . .  . .  100  24.6  69.8  1 :  2.9 

Meat    meal    (tankage) 10.8      ..  3.8  67.2  12.5      ..  ..  100  63.6  89.9  1:1.3 

Cow's   milk,   separated 90.3      ..  0.8     3.8  0.2     4.7  ..100     3.8     7.6  1:2.0 

iSTTie  crude  protein  of  molasses  consists  almost  exclusively  of  nitrogenous  substances  of  non- 
Blbuminous  nature. 


228  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

Table  II 

The  Salts  in  Feeding  Stuffs 

Average  Content  in  1,000  Parts  of  Fresh  or  Air-Dried  Substance 

o 

■2  '%  -^ 

Feeding  Stuffs                              ^  jaE  "  "a  ^  u  x 

^     j3  B  'I  E  I  0:2  S:2  ■|.'2  S 

I.  Green  Forage.                                  ^      <  (2  w  J  !^  £<  c?i<  i^<  u 
a.  Meadow  Crops  and  Grasses. 

Meadow  crops  in   bloom 750  20.3  5.8  0.6  2.7  1.2  1.2  0.9  7.9  1.0 

unfertilized   moor   pastures 750  15.1  2.4      1.1  ..  ..  0.9 

in  fertilized  moor  pastures 800  12.0  4.3      1.2  ..  ..  1.2 

Rich   pasture    780  21.5  8.7  0.3  2.5  1.1  1.9  0.7  3.4  1.7 

Grass,  young  and  second  crop... 800  18.0  5.3  0.7  1.6  1.2  1.4  0.9  4.6  1.0 

Rye    grass    700  20.4  7.1  0.7  1.5  0.4  2.2  0.8  6.5  2.1 

Orchard  grass   700  17.8  5.9  0.8  1.1  0.5  1.3  0.5  5.9  1.3 

Timothy    700  20.5  7.1  0.4  1.7  0.7  2.4  0.6  6.6  1.1 

Sweet  grasses   in   general 700  22.1  7.1  0.6  1.7  0.7  1.8  0.9  8.1  1.3 

Feed    rye    760  16.3  6.3  0.1  1.2  0.5  2.4  0.2  5.2  0.6 

Oats,    green     810  14.2  5.6  0.5  0.9  0.4  1.3  0.5  4.4  0.6 

Grains  in  bloom   785  15.0  4.4  0.3  0.9  0.4  1.4  0.4  6.2  0.6 

Corn,  green    820  10.4  3.7  0.5  1.4  0.1  1.0  0.3  1.9  0.5 

Sorghum  in  bloom  770  14.0  3.9  1.9  1.3  0.6  0.8  0.5  4.0  1.1 

Italian  millet,  beginning  bloom... 750  17.4  6.3  0.4  1.8  1.6  1.0  0.6  4.9  0.9 

b.  Clovers  and  legumes. 

Alfalfa,  beginning  bloom   740  17.0  3.0  0.3  7.8  0.9  2.0  1.1  1.8  0.7 

Red  clover,  very  young 860  13.8  4.9  0.3  3.9  1.2  1.6  0.3  0.4  0.5 

Red  clover,  in   bud 820  13.1  4.8  0.2  3.9  1.4  1.3  0.3  0.3  0.4 

Red  clover,  in  bloom 800  13.7  4.4  0.2  4.7  1.5  1.3  0.4  0.3  0.4 

Swedish  clover    820    8.5  2.3  0.2  2.9  1.0  0.8  0.3  0.3  0.4 

White  clover,  bloom   800  14.2  3.0  0.8  3.5  1.1  1.8  0.8  0.6  0.6 

Carnation  clover,  bloom    815  11.2  2.5  0.9  3.5  0.7  0.8  0.3  1.8  0.3 

Kidney  vetch   830  10.9  3.0  0.1  5.7  0.5  1.0  0.2  0.4  0.1 

"Clover   grass"    750  16.4  7.6  0.3  1.7  0.7  1.6  0.8  3.3  0.3 

Esparset,  in  bloom   850  11.0  3.1  0.4  4.0  0.7  1.1  0.3  0.9  0.4 

Serradella,  in  bloom    800  19.6  7.7  0.4  4.3  0.7  2.2  0.8  1.7  0.5 

Peas,   green    815  13.9  5.2  0.5  3.5  1.4  1.5  1.1  0.2  0.4 

Lupines,   green    850    6.2  1.5  0.5  1.6  0.6  1.1  0.4  0.4  1.1 

c.  Other  forage  plants. 

Rape,  beginning  of  bloom 870  10.5  3.5  0.4  2.3  0.4  1.2  1.5  0.5  0.8 

Mustard,  white,  before  bloom.... 870  10.2  4.0  0.4  2.5  0.4  0.5  1.0  0.5  0.8 

Buckwheat,  in  bloom   850  12.4  3.8  0.3  5.0  1.6  0.8  0.5  0.1  0.1 

Field   spurry    800  13.5  4.7     1.1  2.6  1.6  2.0  0.5  0.2  1.1 

d.  Leaves  and  tops  of  root  crops. 

Field    beets    905  13.0  2.5  3.5  1.6  1.4  0.8  0.8  0.5  2.5 

Sugar  beet  leaves  with  tops 800  16.0  3.5     3.0  1.5     1.1  1.0  0.5  0.8  1.0 

Turnips    890  12.0  2.9     1.1  3.9    0.5  0.9     1.1  0.5  1.2 

Kohlrabi    880  19.6  2.8  0.8  6.5  0.8  2.0  2.3  2.1  1.5 

Carrots    820  20.5  2.5  2.0  7.9  0.8  1.0  1.8  2.4  1.5 

Artichokes    800  14.5  3.1  0.2  5.0     1.3  0.7  0.2  3.6  0.4 

Potatoes,  nearly  mature 770  20.5  4.5     0.9  6.4  3.3  1.6     1.3  0.9  1.5 


THE  SALTS  IN  FEEDING  STUFFS 


229 


Table  II. 
The  Salts  in  Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 


Feeding  Stuffs 


II.  Hay.  ^     •« 

a.  Meadow  hay  and  grasses.  ^      < 

Meadow  hay    140  70.0 

Second  growth    150  76.0 

Rich   pasture    150  84.0 

Marsh   hay    (best) 150  73.0 

Salt  marsh  hay   (Baltic) 150  65.5 

Meadow  grass,  irrigated 

with   liquid  manure    150  80.0 

Alpine  hay   150  29.5 

Rye  grass  (English) 140  58.0 

Orchard    grass 140  50.8 

Meadow  hay  from  unfertilized 

moor   meadows    150  51.0 

Meadow  hay  from  moor  meadows 

fertilized  with  potassium 

phosphate   150  54.0 

Sour  grasses  (reeds,  etc.) 140  37.2 

Cereals,   in   bloom    150  59.4 

b.  Clovers  and  legumes. 

Alfalfa,  beginning  bloom 160  63.0 

Red   clover,   very   young 160  78.0 

Red  clover,   in   bud 160  63.0 

Red  clover,  in  bloom 160  54.0 

Red  clover,  mature 150  46.5 

Sand  vetch,   beginning  bloom....  160  69.0 

White  clover  in  bloom 160  61.0 

Swedish   clover    160  40.0 

Kidney  vetch,  in  bloom 160  53.2 

Hop  trefoil  160  53.7 

Carnation    clover    160  50.7 

"Clover   grass"    160  49.5 

Esparcet,  in  bloom    160  45.8 

Serradella    160  54.0 

Vetches,  green,   in  bloom    160  45.5 

Peas,    green    160  59.5 

Lupine   hay    160  34.2 

c.  Other  forage  plants. 

Rape,  beginning  bloom    160  68.0 

Buckwheat,  in  bloom    160  69.1 

Field  spurry   167  56.3 

III.  Root  crops. 

Field  beets 90O    6.5 

Sugar  beets  (new  varieties 

rich    in    sugar) 750     5.3 

Turnips    920     6.4 

Carrots     850    8.2 

Artichokes    800  10.8 

Potatoes    750    9.5 

Kohlrabi    870     7.5 


PLI 

di 

A 

§ 

Ph< 

(f.< 

'(r.< 

o 

20.0 

22 

9.5 

4.0 

4.3 

3.0  27.2 

4.0 

22.3 

3.0 

7.0 

5.0 

5.9 

4.0 

19.4 

4.5 

34.0 

1.3 

10.0 

4.6 

7.5 

2.6 

16.0 

8.0 

27.0 

1.0 

7.2 

6.0 

5.3 

2.3 

15.6 

10.5 

19.0 

7.6 

8.5 

2.8 

4.7 

4.0 

12.6 

7.1 

35.0 

2.5 

9.5 

Z2 

9.3 

4.6 

6.9 

9.8 

7.7 

0.4 

7.4 

2.4 

2.7 

1.4 

7.2 

0.7 

20.0 

2.0 

4.3 

1.3 

6.2 

2.3 

18.5 

6.0 

16.7 

2.2 

3.1 

1.4 

3.6 

1.3 

16.7 

3.6 

8.0 

3.8 

•• 

3.0 

19.0 

5.4 

5.4 

8.8 

0.4 

1.8 

1.4 

zh 

13.8 

. 

19.3 

1.0 

3.4 

1.7 

5.6 

1.5 

24.7 

2.3 

15.0 

1.1 

25.2 

3.1 

6.5 

Z.(^ 

5.0 

2.5 

25.5 

1.9 

23.5 

7.6 

10.0 

1.8 

2.5 

3.3 

20.5 

1.4 

20.7 

7.6 

6.9 

1.7 

1.8 

2.4 

15.0 

1.1 

20.1 

6.3 

5.6 

1.9 

1.6 

2.2 

12.0 

1.4 

15.8 

6.9 

4.4 

1.4 

3.0 

1.3 

20.0 

0.8 

18.1 

5.7 

9.7 

4.3 

7.Z 

2.5 

13.0 

4.4 

18.4 

5.8 

7.8 

4.5 

2.7 

2.6 

11.1 

1.2 

13.6 

5.0 

4.1 

1.6 

1.6 

2.2 

14.5 

0.7  27.7 

2.5 

4.7 

0.7 

1.7 

0.6 

16.8 

4.4 

14.9 

4.5 

4.4 

2.2 

1.9 

4.8 

11.7 

4.3 

16.0 

3.1 

3.6 

1.3 

8.2 

1.8 

20.0 

0.9 

5.6 

2.3 

5.3 

2.8 

11.1 

1.2 

13.0 

1.5 

16.8 

6.3 

4.6 

1.4 

Z.7 

1.8 

10.0 

1.7 

18.2 

2.8 

9.1 

3.1 

7.0 

2.1 

10.0 

2.4 

16.3 

4.6 

6.2 

3.4 

1.1 

1.4 

20.0 

2.3 

15.6 

6.3 

6.8 

5.1 

0.8 

2.0 

8.0 

2.5 

8.8 

Z.Z 

5.8 

1.9 

2.4 

0.6 

22.6 

2.3 

15.0 

2.7 

7.6 

9.5 

3.2 

5.0 

21.4 

1.6  27.9 

9.2 

4.2 

2.5 

0.8 

0.5 

19.7 

4.5 

10.8 

6.8 

8.3 

1.9 

0.8 

4.4 

2.8 

1.5 

0.3 

0.4 

0.6 

0.3 

0.2 

1.0 

2.3 

0.7 

0.6 

0.5 

0.8 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

2.9 

0.6 

0.7 

0.2 

0.8 

0.7 

0.1 

0.3 

3.0 

1.5 

0.9 

0.4 

1.1 

0.5 

0.2 

0.4 

6.2 

10 

0.3 

0.3 

0.6 

0.6 

0.2 

0.4 

6.0 

0.2 

0.3 

0.5 

1.2 

0.6 

0.2 

0.4 

3.5 

0.4 

0.9 

0.3 

1,1 

0.7 

0.1 

0.5 

230 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


Table  II. 
The  Salts  in  Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 


Feeding  Stufifs 

IV.  Grains  and  Seeds.  «    -g 

a.  Grains.  >    < 

Winter    rye    140  18.9 

Winter  wheat   140  17.8 

Winter  barley   140  21.5 

Summer   rye    140  19.0 

Summer  wheat   140  19.9 

Summer  barley   140  25.5 

Oats    140  26.5 

Spelt  without  glumes   140  15.0 

Spelt  with  glumes   140  37.0 

Corn    140  12.8 

Sorghum   140  16.0 

Millet   140  29.5 

Sugar   millet    140  23.4 

b.  Legume  seeds. 

Peas    140  27.5 

Field    beans    140  31.0 

Garden   beans    150  27.4 

Soy   beans    100  28.3 

Lupine    130  37.0 

Feed  vetch   140  26.6 

c.  Oily  seeds. 

Rape  120  39.2 

Mustard 130  36.5 

Summer  turnips   120  38.0 

Flax    120  32.6 

Poppy 145  51.5 

Hemp     120  46.3 

Beechnuts   150  27.0 

Peanuts    65  32.0 

Cocoanut 460    9.7 

d.  Other  seeds  and  fruits. 

Buckwheat    140  11.8 

Horse  chestnut   (fresh) 490  12.0 

Acorns  (fresh) 550  9.8 

Fruit  and  berries — 

Apples,  whole  fruit   830  2.2 

Pears    830  Z.Z 

Plums  830  2.9 

V.  Straw. 

a.  Cereal  straw. 

Winter  rye   140  40.0 

Winter  wheat    140  48.5 

Winter   spelt    140  50.8 

Summer  rye  140  41.5 

Summer  wheat   140  35.0 

Barley    140  48.0 

Winter  barley   140  48.0 

Oats   140  63.3 

Indian  corn   150  45.3 


.2 
1 

1 

■<ji< 

o 

6.0 

0.6 

0.5 

2.0 

8.5 

0.2 

0.3 

0.6 

5.0 

0.6 

0.5 

2.0 

8.0 

0.2 

0.3 

0.5 

6.5 

0.7 

0.1 

2.0 

6.6 

0.5 

4.9 

0.8 

6.0 

0.6 

0.5 

2.0 

9.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.6 

6.0 

0.5 

0.5 

2.2 

8.5 

0.2 

0.3 

0.5 

7.0 

1.0 

0.6 

2.0 

8.0 

0.4 

6.0 

1.5 

5.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.3 

7.0 

0.5 

10.5 

0.5 

4.3 

0.7 

0.6 

1.0 

6.5 

0.2 

0.1 

0.3 

5.7 

0.4 

1.0 

2.6 

7.6 

1.1 

17.1 

0.2 

3.7 

0.1 

0.3 

1.9 

5.7 

0.1 

0.3 

0.2 

3.3 

0.5 

0.2 

3.4 

8.1 

1.2 

3.3 

0.4 

0.2 

2.8 

6.5 

0.1 

15.6 

0.1 

3.5 

2.0 

0.2 

3.1 

5.8 

0.2 

8.6 

12.5 

0.2 

1.1 

1.9 

10.0 

0.8 

0.2 

0.4 

12.9 

0.3 

1.5 

2.2 

12.1 

1.1 

0.2 

0.5 

12.1 

0.4 

1.5 

2.1 

9.7 

1.1 

0.2 

0.3 

12.6 

0.3 

1.7 

2.5 

10.4 

0.8 

0.1 

11.4 

0.3 

2.8 

4.5 

14.2 

3.2 

0.1 

0.3 

8.0 

2.1 

2.2 

2.4 

9.9 

1.0 

0.3 

0.7 

9.6 

0.6 

5.5 

4.6 

16.6 

0.9 

0.5 

0.1 

5.9 

2.0 

7.0 

Z.7 

14.6 

1.8 

0.9 

0.2 

10.0 

5.2 

4.7  14.9 

2.3 

10.0 

0.7 

2.6 

4.7 

13.5 

0.8 

0.4 

7.0 

0.5 

18.2 

4.9 

16.2 

1.0 

1.7 

2.4 

9.4 

0.4 

10.9 

2.6 

16.9 

0.1 

5.5 

8.3 

0.4 

6.2 

2.5 

6.3 

1.4 

0.2 

12.7 

0.9 

1.3 

0.6 

12.4 

3.4 

0.1 

4.3 

0.8 

0.5 

0.9 

1.7 

0.5 

0.1 

1.3 

2.7 

0.7 

0.5 

1.5 

5.7 

0.2 

0.2 

7.1 

1.4 

0.1 

2.7 

0.3 

0.3 

0.8 

6.3 

0.1 

1.0 

0.5 

1.5 

0.4 

0.1 

0.2 

0.8 

0.6 

0.1 

0.2 

0.3 

0.1 

0.1 

1.8 

0.3 

0.3 

0.2 

0.5 

0.2 

0.1 

1.7 

0.3 

0.2 

0.4 

0.1 

0.1 

•• 

10.0 

1.0 

3.1 

1.2 

2.8 

1.6  18.8 

1.5 

9.0 

0.6 

2.7 

1.1 

2.0 

1.1 

31.0 

1.0 

7.2 

0.3 

2.9 

1.2 

1.6 

1.2  36.0 

1.0 

7.5 

0.6 

4.0 

1.2 

2.0 

1.5  25.2 

7.5 

0.6 

2.6 

0.9 

2.0 

1.8 

18.2 

1.2 

12.0 

3.0 

3.3 

1.2 

1.8 

1.8  23.4 

3.0 

12.0 

1.8 

15.0 

4.6 

4.3 

2.3 

1.5 

2.0  30.0 

4.6 

16.4 

0.5 

4.9 

2.6 

3.0 

2.4  13.1 

0.8 

THE  SALTS  IN  FEEDING  STUFFS  231 

Table  II. 
The  Salts  in  Feeding  Stuffs. — Continued. 

o 

.2  '%  •- 

Feeding  Stuffs                            ^                -Sl  SaJ"  •§ 

rt  J3       2  '^      a  i  SrH  a:2  !5.'S  J 

b.  Other  plants.                                    ^    <  .  .    (S  w      ;j  ^  £<  5<    !^<  cj 

Field  bean    160  44.9  19.4  0.8  12.0  2.6  2.9  1.8    3.2  2.0 

Garden   bean    160  40.2  12.8  3.2  11.1  2.5  3.9  1.7     1.9  3.1 

Pea    160  38.0     5.0  1.8  15.9  3.5  3.5  2.7    2.9  2.3 

Soy  bean  140  32.7     5.0  0.7  14.6  5.0  3.1  2.1     1.8  . . 

Feed  vetch   160  44.1     6.3  6.9  15.6  3.7  2.7  3.3    3.6  2.2 

Lupine   160  42.6  17.7  1.3     9.7  3.4  2.5  3.4     1.2  1.4 

Rape  160  41.3  11.3  3.9  11.7  2.5  2.5  3.1     2.6  3.5 

Poppy    160  48.6  18.4  0.6  14.7  3.1  1.6  2.5     5.5  1.3 

Buckwheat    160  51.7  24.2  1.1     9.5  1.9  6.1  2.7    2.9  4.1 

VI.  Chaff. 

a.  Of  the  grains. 

Winter  rye  140  82.7    5.2  0.3     3.5  1.1  5.6  0.166.4  0.4 

Winter  wheat   140  92.0    8.4  1.7     1.7  1.2  4.0  . .  74.7  . . 

Winter  spelt 140  81.4    7.7  0.3    2.0  2.0  5.9  1.9  60.4  .. 

Oats    140  71.2    4.5  2.9    4.0  1.5  1.3  3.5  50.4  0.8 

b.  Other  plants. 

Rape   hulls    140  70.1     9.5  3.0    3.1  5.8  3.7  6.4    0.8  3.5 

Field  bean  hulls 150  54.7  35.5  1.3     6.8  6.0  2.7  1.2     0.3  1.0 

Lupine  hulls  140  19.1     9.4  1.3     4.4  0.8  1.0  0.4    0.9  0.3 

VII.  Commercial  Products 
and  Refuse. 

a.  Milling  by-products. 

Wheat  bran    130  53.5  15.3  0.3     1.5  9.0  26.9  . .     0.2  . . 

Wheat,  bread  flour 120  11.2    3.5  0.1     0.6  1.4  5.6  

Wheat,  fine  flour   130    4.4     1.5  ..     0.3  0.4  2.2  

Rye  bran  125  71.9  19.4  0.5     2.1  11.4  34.4  . .     1.4  . . 

Rye   flour    140  16.9    6.5  0.3     0.2  1.4  8.2  

Oat  hulls    140  34.7    4.9  0.3     1.4  1.0  1.6  1.3  23.2  0.5 

Barley  bran   120  49.5    8.3  0.7     1.9  3.1  9.1  0.9  24.1  0.6 

Barley  feed  meal 130  21.1     5.5  0.4    0.7  2.8  10.8  0.3     0.3  . . 

Barley  meal   140  20.0    5.8  0.5    0.6  2.7  9.5  0.6      . .  , . 

Buckwheat  bran   140  29.8    9.7  0.6    2.9  4.0  10.7  0.9    0.6  . . 

Corn  meal    140    5.9     1.7  0.2    0.4  0.9  2.7  

Rice  feed  meal 100  54.7    6.1  1.2     1.2  9.5  23.8  0.2  10.3  . . 

Rice  hulls   100154.0    2.4  0.5    0.8  0.1  4.1  0.7143.6  0.2 

b.  Refuse  from  the  distilling 
and  brewing  industries. 

Malt  sprouts    ; .  120  67.7  20.8  1.2     1.9  1.9  18.2  2.7  14.9  4.7 

Beet  pulp,   moist   950    2.8    0.4  0.1     1.1  0.2  0.2  0.1     0.7  0.1 

Beet  pulp,  dry  115  35.0     5.0  1.0  14.0  2.0  1.5  0.2    9.0  1.0 

Beet  molasses   775  71.0  50.7  9.1     3.1  0.3  0.5  1.6    0.3  6.2 

Molasses   slump    800  27.0  15.0  3.0    0.1  0.1  0.1  0.2    0.1  0.4 

-Potato  fiber   850     1.1     0.2  ..     0.5  0.1  0.3  

Potato  slop  930    6.6    3.0  0.5    0.3  0.6  1.3  0.5    0.2  0.2 

Grape  or  wine  refuse 650  36.7  17.2  0.2    4.0  1.5  4.6  1.8     3.8  0.2 

Cottonseed  cake   110  66.4  15.8  . .     2.9  10.1  30.5  0.8     5.5  . . 

Peanut  cake   100  39.7  10.0  0.9     1.6    5.2  11.6  0.9     1.2  0.9 

Linseed  cake   120  51.3  12.5  0.8    4.3  8.1  16.2  1.7    6.4  0.4 

Rapeseed  cake  110  57.0  13.0  1.9    7.1  7.3  20.0  3.4    2.9  0.4 


232  THE  SCIENTIFIC  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

Table  II. 
The  Salts  in  Feeding  Stuffs.— Continued. 


Feeding  Stuffs                             H  a 

^  <        ^ 

Palmseed  cake  100  26.1     5.0 

Cocoanut  Cake  130  53.3  19.6 

Sesame  cake  110  93.8  14.5 

Sunflower  seed  cake    100  49.7  11.7 

Poppy-seed    cake    115  77.4     2.3 

Walnut  cake  130  46.2  15.3 

Beechnut  cake   160  40.4     6.1 

Olive  oil  cake   130  27.8     7.9 

VIII.  Animal  Products. 

a.  Dairy  products  and  wastes. 

Colostrum     730  11.8    0.9 

Cow's  milk  875  7.2     1.7 

Skim  milk  910     7.9     2.1 

Whey  (cow's  milk)   930  5.4     1.7 

Sheep's   milk    815  7.3     1.6 

Goat's   milk    920  5.9     2.3 

b.  Other  animal  waste  products. 

Tankage  115  15.9     0.9 

May  bugs   (fresh) 704  13.4     5.0 

Ox  blood    790  7.9     0.6 


3 

B 

1 

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a 
15 

W 

hJ    , 

s 

(i,< 

w< 

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o 

0.2 

3.1 

4.5 

11.0 

0.5 

0.8 

1.5 

3.5 

3.0 

13.0 

1.8 

1.8 

6.2 

3.5 

25.1 

12.8  32.7 

1.7 

0.9 

0.6 

5.4 

8.1 

21.5 

1.0 

0.3 

0.3 

2.3  27.1 

6.2  31.7 

1.9 

5.6 

0.5 

3.1 

5.6  20.2 

0.6 

0.7 

0.1 

4.3 

12.4 

3.3 

9.1 

0.6 

3.9 

0.4 

1.9 

6.1 

0.3 

2.5 

0.2 

5.6 

0.2 

0.7 

4.1 

0.2 

3.3 

1.3 

0.4 

1.7 

0.2 

2.0 

6.1 

1.0 

0..S 

1.7 

0.2 

2.2 

0.3 

0.9 

0.7 

1.0 

0.9 

0.2 

0.8 

0.3 

2.1 

2.6 

0.1 

0.2 

0.6 

0.6 

0.4 

0.3 

0.8 

0.2 

1.7 

0.5 

3.6 

0.6 

6.9 

0.2 

0.1 

0.3 

0.8 

0.4 

1.1 

5.6 

0.2 

0.2 

3.6 

0.1 

0.4 

0.2 

0.1 

2.7 

»*< 


&m 


»• 


c.^ 


c^ 


INDEX 


Absinthin,  16. 

Acetic  acid,  15. 

Aconite,  44. 

Acorns,  97,  98,  230. 

Actinomjxosis  bovis,  47,  68. 

Adenin,  9. 

Advantages,  45. 

Agglutination,  45, 

Age  of  oats,  85. 

Age  of  plants,  44. 

Agreeability  of  foods,  166. 

Agrostis,  36,  37,  41. 

Aira,  41. 

Air  dry  feeding  stuffs,  147. 

Albumen,  118. 

Albumen  index,  130,  134. 

Albumen  ratio,  172. 

Albuminous  substances,  4,  5,  151. 

Aleuron  layer,  11 . 

Alfalfa,  51,  52. 

Algae,  218. 

Alkaline  solution,  13. 

Alkaloids,  9. 

Allantoin,  9. 

Almond  seed  cake,  123. 

Alopecurus,  35,  41. 

Alpine  hay,  60. 

Aluminum,  4. 

American  meat  meal,  125. 

Amido  compounds,  9. 

Amids,  6. 

Ammonia,  3,  9,  218. 

Ammophila,  42. 

Amygdalin,  9. 

Anaphylaxis,  51. 

Anemia,  64, 159,  160,224. 

Angelicin,  16. 

Anis  seed  by-products,  123. 

Anthroxanthum,  36, 41. 

Anthrax  spores,  101. 

Anthyllis,  50. 

Appetizer,  3,  151. 

Apples,  75,  220. 

Arabin,  14, 

Arabinose,  11, 12. 

Arginin,  8, 

Arrow  grass,  43. 

Arsenic,  4. 

Artichoke,  14, 16,  69,  209,  229 

Artificial  iish  feeding,  221. 

Arundo,  43. 

Ash,  4. 

Ash  analysis,  134. 

Assimilation,  150, 161. 

Automatic  feeders,  211. 

A  vena  brevis,  81. 


Avena  sativa,  81. 
A  vitamins,  8. 
Avitaminoses,  8. 
Avenin,  83. 
Awns,  n. 

Bacon,  92, 192, 

Bacteriological  examination,  147. 

Baking,  34. 

Barite,  134. 

Barley,  87,  89,  130,  222,  223,  230. 

bran,  99,  227,  231. 

by-products,  102. 

feed,  226,  231. 

French,  102. 

green,  47. 

hulls  and  chaff,  68. 

malt,  104. 

meal,  102,  231. 

slop,  89. 

sprouted,  103. 

straw,  60. 

winter,  230. 
Basal  feeding  stuffs,  148. 
Beans,  93,  226,  230. 
Bean  straw,  68. 
Beckmann's  method,  32. 
Beechnuts,  98, 230. 
Beechnut  cake,  122,  232. 
Beets  and  roots,  74,  228. 
Beet  leaves,  54,  55. 

leaf  silage,  63. 

pulp,  107,  108,  195. 

pulp,  dry,  108. 

pulp  disease.  111, 

ferment,  108. 
Beet  sugar,  107. 
Bent  grasses,  37. 
Benzine,  112. 
Betain,9, 109. 
Biogenic  elements,  155. 
Biological  examination,  135. 
Bitter  principles,  16. 
Blue  grass,  38. 
Blood  corpuscles,  15, 
Blood  feed,  87. 

meal,  127,  223. 
Boiled  milk,  183. 
Bone  feed  meal,  128. 
diseases  of,  155, 

by  feed  of,  206, 
Bonnet  grass,  37. 
Buckeye  Ohio,  98. 

Buckwheat,  53,  81,  85,  93,  225,  229.  230, 
231. 
233 


234 


INDEX 


Buckwheat  bran,  101, 102,  231 

crushed,  76. 

disease,  53. 

green  forage,  225,  228. 

seeds,  230. 

seed  hulls,  54. 

straw,  68. 
Bulkiness  of  rations,  166,  171. 
Buttermilk,  125. 
Butyric  acid,  15. 
Brachypodium,  36,  41. 
Bran,  99, 102. 

buckwheat,  102. 

coarse,  102. 

corn,  103. 

made  from  tips,  102. 

moistened  for  horses,  101. 

rye,  102. 

wheat,  102. 
Bread,  34. 
Breed,  151. 
Brewer's  grains,  104. 
Briza  media,  41. 
Bromus,  36,  41, 42. 

erectus,  39. 

racemosus,  39. 

Cadaver  meal,  125, 126. 
Caffein,  9. 
Cajanus,  94. 
Calamagrostis,  41,  42. 
Calcium,  4. 

chloride,  158, 157. 
Calculations  of  rations,  165. 

of  money  value  of. 

feeding  stuffs,  129. 
Calf  feed,  183.   ^ 
Calluma  vulgaris,  65. 
Calorimeter,  149. 
Camelina  cake,  122. 

straw,  68. 

hulls,  69. 

chaff,  69. 
Canary  grass,  41,  s.''. 
Cane,  43. 

sugar,  11, 14. 
Candlenut  cake,  122. 
Cannery  refuse,  126. 
Capronic  acid,  14. 
Caraway  seed,  51, 123. 
Carbohydrates,  5,  11, 13, 152, 153. 
Carbonic  acid  test,  134. 
Carex,  43. 
Carp  feeding,  221. 
Carrot,  74, 229. 
Castor  oil  bean  cake,  122. 
Cellulose,  11,13,33.34. 
Centrifuging,  107. 
Cereal,  66. 

straw,  66. 

grains,  Id,  79. 
Cerebritis,  115. 


Chaff  and  hulls,  67, 68, 226. 
Chaffed  hay,  67. 

straw,  66, 68. 
Chamomile,  true,  46. 
Change  of  feed,  167. 
Charcoal,  4. 
Charlock,  94. 
Chemical  constituents  of  feeding  stuffs,  2. 

examinations  of  feeding  stuffs,  134. 

latitude,  132. 
Chess,  meadow,  39,  41. 
Chicken  feeding,  207. 

masting,  212. 
Chives,  46. 

Chloride  manganous,  220. 
Chloroform  test,  134. 
Chlorophyl,  10, 47. 
Cholesterins,  10. 
Cholin,  9,  83. 
Chufa,  75. 
Gibus,  110. 
Cider  press,  107. 
Cirsin,  9. 
Citric  acid,  15. 
Cleanliness,  168. 
Climate,  44. 
Clover,  48,  225, 228. 

species,  49. 

disease,  51. 
Cochineal,  6. 
Cock  chasers,  128. 
Cockle,  79, 89, 134. 
Cocoa  shells,  131. 

nut  molasses  feed,  109. 

nut  by-products,  121,  230. 

nut  oil  cakes,  123. 
Colic  flatulent,  68. 
Colostral  milk,  181. 
Colsmann's  method,  32. 
Combustibles,  149. 
Comfrey,  56. 

Commercial  feeding  stuffs,  126,  128. 
Compensating  indegredients,  132. 
Complement  fixations,  135. 
Composition  of  forage,  45. 
Concentrates,  149. 
Condimental,  2. 
Conglutinins,  135. 
Conservation  of  feeding  stuffs,  16. 
Control  association,  163. 
Control  of  feeding  stuffs,  31. 
Cooking,  28. 
Copper,  4. 
Coretha,  217. 
Corriander  seed,  123. 
Correctives  of  by-feeds,  148. 
Corn,  86,  91,  92,  222,  226. 

bran,  103. 

cob,  92. 

cockle,  106. 

fodder,  sweet,  49. 

germ  cake,  112. 


INDEX 


235 


Corn  gluten  meal,  1 12. 

glucose  cake,  111. 

green,  48, 225,  230. 

lean,  80, 82. 

meal,  231. 

oil  cake,  86. 

plump,  80, 82. 

screenings,  80,  82. 

slop,  106,  227. 

smut,  92. 

straw,  230. 
Cotton  seed  cake,  117, 231. 

meal,  118. 

oil,  117. 
Cow  wheat,  134. 
Crude  fiber,  12. 
Curd,  223. 
Cynosurus,  37. 
Cyclops,  216,  217. 

Darnel,  poisonous,  101, 

Dayfly,217. 

Dead  ripe  grains,  85. 

Determination  of  moisture  content,  3. 

Devil  toad  stool,  57. 

Dextrin,  11,  13, 102. 

Dextrose,  11,  13. 

Diarrhea,  107. 

Diastose.  33,  34, 103, 186. 

Diastasolin,  33,  34, 186. 

Dietetic  effects,  167 

Dietetic  feed  mixtures,  223. 

Diuretics,  224. 

Digestibility,  151. 

Digestion,  150. 

Dioxid,  4. 

Disaccharids,  11. 

Diseases  from  grass  feeding,  46. 

Distillery,  105. 

slops,  106. 
Dogbiscuit.  128,  206. 
Dog  food,  206 
Dolichos,  95. 
Dry  brewers  grains,  104. 

feed  for  hens,  210. 

feed  for  chickens,  207. 

matter,  3. 

potatoes,  86 

slop,  107. 
Drying.  19. 

artificial,  21. 
Duck  food,  212.  . 
Duck  weed,  220. 


Eggs,  7. 
Embryo,  77. 
Emulsified  milk,  185. 
Endosperm,  77,  144. 
Energy  conversion,  149. 
Ensilaged,  107.  ^ 
Ensilage  bacteria,  27. 


Ensilaged  beet  pulp,  108. 

Enzymes,  7, 17,29, 169. 

Eosin,  89. 

Ergot,  134,  142. 

Erica  tetralis,  65. 

Esparcet,  50, 182, 228. 

Ethereal  oils,  10. 

Ether  soluble  non-fatty  substances,  10. 

Examination,  of  by-products,  141. 

of  feeding  stuffs,  131. 

of  starch  grains,  137. 
Exanthema,  51. 
Exercise,  151. 
Extract,  11. 

meal,  113. 

product,  13. 

Fagopyrum,  53. 
False  flax,  69, 200. 
Fats,  5, 10, 152, 153. 
Fattening  growing  pigs,  192. 
Fattening  rations,  194. 
Fat  tissue,  152. 
Feces,  examination  of,  161. 
Feed  cakes,  87. 

sugar.  111. 
Feeding  calves,  181. 

chickens,  207. 

ducks,  212. 

for  profit,  1. 

growing  animals,  179. 

lupine  hay,  63. 

molasses,  109. 

periods,  168. 
Feeding  stuff,  conservation  of,  16. 

of  animal  origin,  124. 
Feeding  stuffs,  149,  299. 
Feed  utilization,  163. 
Fennel,  123. 
Ferments,  7. 
Fermentation,  23, 29. 

acetic  acid,  24. 

butyric  acid,  24. 

lactic  acid,  24. 
Ferns,  65. 
Fertilizer,  44. 

Fertilization  of  fish  ponds,  215. 
Festuca,  36, 41. 
Festuca  rubra,  40. 
Field  beans,  93, 226,  230. 
Field  beets,  74,  228. 
Field  pea,  50, 86,  93, 94, 95. 
Field  rushes,  43. 
Field  spurry,  9.  35,  53,  98. 
Fish  feeding,  221. 
Fish  food,  216. 
Fish  food  meal,  216. 
Fish  meal,  126. 
Flag  oats,  81. 
Flax  seed  meal,  98. 
Flax  seed,  69, 223,  230, 226. 
Flesh  forming  food,  153. 


236 


INDEX 


Florin  grass,  37. 
Fluid  feeding  stuff,  149. 
Fluorophyll-Koefeld,  54. 
Fly  toadstool,  57. 
Food — 

agreeability  of,  166. 

palatability  of,  166. 

dietetic  effects  of,  167. 
Food  for  goats,  204. 
Food  for  pregnant  bitches,  206. 
Food  influence  on  milk  secretion,  199. 
Forage,  green,  35. 

disadvantages  of,  46. 

advantages  of,  45. 

practical  use  of,  46. 
Forage  plants,  44. 
Formic  acid,  15. 
Foot  and  mouth  disease,  124. 
Foxtail,  36. 
Freezing,  17. 
Fruit  sugar,  11,  13. 
Fructose  (fruit  sugar),  11,  13. 
Fucus,  128. 
Fucus  serratus,  128. 
Fucus  vesiculosis,  128. 
Fungi,  57,  222. 

Galactose,  11, 14. 

Garlic,  46. 

Gawalowsky's  test,  134. 

Geese,  food  for,  213. 

Gentopicrin,  16. 

German  cadaver  meal,  125,  126. 

Germination,  17. 

Giant  cheat,  41. 

Githagin,  16 

Glauber  salts,  224,  218. 

Glove  factory  waste,  126. 

Glue  concentrate,  127. 

Glutamin,  9. 

Gluten,  111. 

mean.  111,  112. 
Glyceria  aquatica. 

s.  spectabilis,  41. 
Glyceria  fluitans,  41. 
Glycogen,  11,  153. 
Glycosids,  9,  16. 
Goats,  milk  vield  of  ,,204. 
Golden  oats,' 38,  40. 
Good  herbs,  59. 

Grain  prematurely  ripened,  85. 
Grain,  90. 

lean,  80. 

slop,  105. 

straw,  65. 
Grape  sugar,  11,  13. 
Grape  vines,  65. 
Grass,  3,  41,  225. 

cultivated  field,  47. 

fescue,  43. 

florin,  37. 

honey,  38,40,41. 


Grass,  manna,  41. 

meadow,  45. 

pasture,  47. 

sour,  35,  43,  58. 

sweet,  35, 39. 
Grease,  109. 
Green  barley,  47. 

rye,  47. 

wheat,  47. 

stuff,  208. 

feed  for  chickens,  207. 
Grits,  13. 

Grits  and  groats,  131. 
Group  feeding,  163. 
Guanin,  9. 
Guanidin,  9. 
Gum,  11,  51. 

Hansa  blood  meal,  110 
Hay,  44,  57,  62,  229. 

aftermath,  57. 

air  dried,  19. 

baked,  23. 

bean, 63. 

brown,  23. 

buckwheat,  63. 

clover,  63. 

fresh,  59, 60. 

heather,  65. 

judging,  58. 

leaf,  64, 66. 

lupine,  63. 

meadow,  57,  59,  186,  229. 

pea,  63. 

to  prepare,  19. 

rations,  171. 

twig,  65. 

uses  of,  62. 
Heather,  65. 

meal,  65. 
Heat  production,  150. 
Henneberg's  method,  11. 
Hexones,  11. 

Hulls  and  chaff,  67,  68, 226. 
Humicacid,  160. 
Holcus,  38,40,41. 
Honey  grass,    38. 
Hops,  103,  105. 

trefoil,  229. 
Horse  chestnut,  98,  99. 
Horses,  feed  for,  178. 
Hybrid  clover,  48,  49. 
Hygiene,  2. 

Hygienic  e.xamination,  133. 
Hypholoma  fasciculare,  59. 
Hypoxanthin,  9. 

Iceland  moss,  65. 
Icterogen,  63. 
Incrustated, 11. 
Individuality,  151. 
Individual  feeding,  162. 


INDEX 


237 


Influence  of  feed  on  milk  secretion,  199. 

Infusorial  earth,  134. 

Infusoria,  215. 

Inorganic  salts,  155. 

Insufficient  nutriment,  148. 

Inulin,  11. 

lodin,  13. 

lodin  starch  reaction,  4,  134. 

Iron,  4,  160. 

Iron  salts,  5,  161. 

Irrigated  meadows,  59. 

Java  bean,  95. 
Judging  hay,  58. 
Juncus,  43. 
June  grass,  38. 

Kapok  cake,  123. 
Klimaxmelasse,  110. 
Kjeldd's  method,  5. 

Lactarius  rufus,  57. 
Lactic  acid,  14. 
Lactic  acid  fermentation,  24. 
Lactose  (milk  sugar),  11,14. 
Laminaria,  128. 
Lathyrus  Sylvester,  54. 
Leaching,  30. 
Lead,  4. 
Leaves  of, 

beets,  54. 

cabbage,  54. 

carrot,  54. 

kohlrabi,  54. 

fall  turnip,  54. 
Lecithin,  10. 
Lees  of  wineries,  107. 
Legumes,  93,  222,  226. 
Legume  seeds,  76. 
Lehmann's  method,  32. 
LeguminosJE,  50. 

hulls  of,  69,  144. 

straw  of,  68,  226. 
Lemna,  220. 

Levulose  (fruit  sugar),  11, 14. 
Licking  disease,  159. 
Liguin,  11. 

Lime,4,  134, 155,157. 
Lime  salt,  5. 
Linamarin,  9. 
Linseed, 

cake,9, 114, 135,231. 

meal,98,  114, 135. 

by-products,  114. 

or  flax  hulls,  69. 
Lodging  of  grain,  16. 
Lolium,  36,  38,41. 
Lucerne,  51,  228,  229. 
Lumpy  jaw,  47. 
Lupines,  8,  52,93,222,231. 
Lupine  alkaloids,  9, 63. 
Lupine,  green,  228. 


Lupine  hay,  63,  96,  229. 

hulls,  231. 

seed,  11. 
Lupine,  toxic  properties  of,  63,  96. 
Lupinosis,  62,  64. 
Lupinotoxin,  63. 
Luzula,  43. 
Lysin,  8. 

Machine  threshed  straw,  67. 
Madia  cake,  122. 
Magnesia,  4, 160. 
Magnesium  salts,  5. 
Mahwa  nut  oil  cake,  122. 
Mahwa  or  bassia  meal,  131. 
Maintenance  ration,  149. 
Maintenance  ration  for  oxen,  173. 
Maizena,  112 
Malic  acid,  15. 
Malt,  103. 

crushed,  34. 

sprouts,  103,  104,  110,  149,  222,  227, 
231. 

sugar,  11, 14. 
Maltose,  11. 
Mangel  wurzel,  14. 
Manganese,  4. 
Manna  grass,  41. 
Mash,  87. 
Mastication,  150. 
May  bugs,  182,  223. 
Meadows,  47,  218. 
Meadow  oats,  37. 
Meadow  grasses,  45,  218. 
Meadow  peas,  44. 
Meal  cakes,  112. 
Meal  flat  cakes,  86. 

gruel,  141. 

mite,  85. 

testing,  134. 
Meat  meal,  125, 126,  223,  227. 
Medicago  lupulina,  48,  49. 
Medium  grain,  80. 
Melelotus,  50. 
Mercury,  5. 

Meteorological  conditions,  45. 
Microscopic  examinations,  136. 
Middlings,  90. 100, 101, 102. 
Mielitz  hay,  60. 
Milk,  122, 124. 182, 183, 184, 185. 

butter,  125,  186. 

by-products,  223,  232. 

cows,  121, 227. 

for  young  dogs,  206. 

fungi,  57. 

molasses,  110. 

plant  influence  on  secretion  of,  46. 

powders,  151. 

producing  foods,  200. 

ripe  grain,  85. 

secretion,  1. 

skim,  124,  186. 


238 


INDEX 


Milk,  sour,  186. 

sugar,  11, 13, 14. 

transition   to   other    feed,    183,    185, 
187, 191. 

\yhole,  124, 184. 
Milking  cows, 

after  feeding,  168, 

before  feeding,  168. 
Millet,  54,  92. 

bran,  102. 

hulls,  102. 

meal,  102. 

shells,  131. 
Milling  by-products,  99. 
Mineral  acid,  134. 

admixture,  133. 

matter,4, 134, 154, 155. 

substances,  136. 
Mites,  147. 
Moistening  food,  29. 
Molasses,  108, 109, 222,  227,  231. 

blood,  1 10. 

cakes,  110. 

for  feeding,  109. 

peat  meal,  110. 

pulp,  109. 
Mold,  147. 

fungi,  3. 
Money  value  of  feeding  stuffs,  129. 
Monosaccharids,  11. 
Moon  bean,  95. 
Mother  peas,  94. 
Muscular  energy,  153. 
Mustard  ,54, 123. 

seed  cake,  123. 

oil,  115. 

Nardus,  36, 37, 43. 

Neurin,  9. 

Nobbe's  compound  sieve,  136. 

Nonesuch,  49. 

Nonproteid  nitrogenous  compounds,  8. 

Niger  cake,  123. 

Nitrates,  10. 

Nitric  acid,  9. 

Nitrogen,  5,  6, 10. 

free  extract,  11,  12,  151,152. 

free  organic  substances,  5,  10. 
Nitrogenous  bodies,  5. 

glycosid's,  9. 
Nutrient 

assimilation,  150. 

requirements,  150, 151. 

salts,  155. 

ratio,  49, 170. 
Nutritive  value  of  leguminosea,  50. 

Oats,  81. 

bran,  102. 

flag,  81. 

freshly  harvested,  83. 

musty,  85. 


Oats,  panicled,  81. 

purr,  81. 

straw,  102. 

wild,  wind,  81. 
Oat  grass,  37. 
Odor,  10,81,84,  104. 
Oexmann's  method,  31. 
Oilcakes,85, 113, 144,227. 
Oil  production,  112. 
Oleic  acid,  10. 
Olive  cake,  123. 
Onion,  44, 46. 
Onobrychis  sativa,  50. 
Orchard  grass,  38, 40, 228. 
Organic  acid,  14. 

bases,  9. 

material,  5, 

nutrients,  154. 

substances,  149. 
Ornithopus  sativus,  50. 
Osteomalacia,  100. 
Ostracoidea,  216. 
Ovagsolan,  174. 
Over  feeding,  51. 
Oxalic  acid,  15. 
Oxen,  feed  for,  176, 177. 
Oxygen,  220. 

Palatability,  166. 
Palmatin,  10, 185. 
Pabnseed  cake,  115. 

molasses,  109. 
Paludina,  217. 
Paralytic  symptoms,  109. 
Pasteurization,  124. 
Pasture,  183. 

grass,  47. 
Paxillus,  55. 
Pea,  87,  93,  222, 226,  228,  231. 

chick,  94. 

chickling,  95. 

meal,  86. 

sugar,  93. 
Pears,  75,  230. 
Peanuts,  230. 

by-products,  116. 

hulls,  116, 131./ 

meal  cake,  14^:220,  227,  231. 

shelled,  117. 
Peat  ground,  65. 
Peat  meal  molasses,  110. 
Pebbles,  110. 
Pectin,  14. 
Pelagic  life,  215. 
Pentones,  11. 
Pentosanes,  11,13, 14. 
Peptone,  103. 

feed,  110. 
Peptonization,  34. 
Petroleum  ether,  112. 
Phalaris  41,  44. 
Phaseolus  lunatis,  95. 


INDEX 


239 


Phleum,  36. 
Phleum  pratense,  41. 
Phosphate  of  lime,  126,  127. 
Phosphoric  acid,  4,  5, 157, 160. 
Photodynamic  substance,  51. 
Pigs,  rations  for  fattening,  192. 
Pitting,  16. 

Pisum  sativum,  50,93. 
Pisum  arvense,  93. 
Plankton,  215. 
Planorbis,217. 
Plums,  75,  230. 
Poa,  36,  38,  40. 
Poisonous  plants,  1. 
Polygonacese,  93. 
Polysaccharids,  93. 
Polygonum  f  agopyrum,  53. 
Pomace,  fruit,  107. 
Poppy  seed  cake,  121, 227. 

feeding  stuffs,  121,230. 
Potash,  4. 

Potash  salts,  5, 159, 160. 
Potassium,  4. 
Potatoes,  56,  69, 226,  229. 

desiccated,  22,  226. 

fiber.  111. 

flakes,  n,  78. 

for  dogs,  206. 

for  ruminants,  71. 

pits,  18. 

pressed,  22,  73,  86. 

puff  ball,  57. 

pulp.  111. 

rot,  18. 

shavings,  22,  86. 

slop,  105,  227. 

sprouted,  17,70. 

storage,  16. 

tops,  18,  56, 64. 
Poultry  feed,  207. 
Povirders, 

appetizer,  151. 

cattle,  151. 

fattening,  151. 

milk,  151. 
Predigestion,  34. 
Precipitation,  135. 
Preparation  of  food,  28,  168. 

for  preliminary  tests,  136. 
Premature  ripening,  76. 
Press  feed,  26. 
Prickly  dyers  broom,  56. 
Principles  of  feeding,  148. 

of  nutrition,  148. 
Productive  rations,  149. 
Propionic  acid,  14. 
Protein,  5.  I5l. 

pure,  6. 
Prussic  acid,  49. 
Pumpkin,  75,  123. 
Pure  water,  208. 
Purity  of  grain,  79. 


Purr  oats,  81. 

Quaking  grass,  41. 
Qualitative  tests,  133,135. 
Quick  grass,  74. 

Rabbit  feeding,  214. 
Racks,  19, 162. 
Raffinose,  11,  14. 
Rainbow  trout,  220. 
Rangoon  or  moon  bean,  95. 
Rape,  54,  229. 

hulls,  69. 

seed,  98. 

seed  cake,  114, 115,  122,  227,  231. 

straw,  68. 
Rations,  169. 
Rations  for 

breeding  pigs,  191. 

calves,  183. 

carp,  222. 

cattle  fattening,  197. 

chicks,  209. 

chickens,  207. 

fattening  chicks,  211. 

colts,  182. 

cows,  201. 

dry  cows,  202. 

milk  cows,  203. 

pregnant  cows,  202. 

dairy  animals,  198. 

dogs,  205. 

ducks,  212. 

fish,  215,  216. 

growing  animals,  179. 

pigs,  191. 

sheep,  189. 

geese,  213. 

goats,  204. 

hog  fattening,  191. 

lambs,  188. 

lajnng  hens,  210. 

mature  ruminants,  194. 

swine,  198. 

military  horses,  177. 

mutton  breeds,  189. 

nursing  sows,  193. 

poultry,  207. 

pups,  206. 

rabbits,  214. 

sheep  fattening,  197. 

wool  sheep,  175. 

work  horses,  177. 

work  oxen,  176. 

young  dogs,  206. 
Raw  meat,  8. 
Red  top,  37. 
Reeds,  35,  43,  65. 
Reindeer  lichens,  65. 
Resin,  33. 
Respiration,  16. 
Rice,  92, 93, 134. 


240 


INDEX 


Rice,  bran,  103. 

chaff,  68, 131. 

feedmeal,  101,  103,  227. 

gluten,  112. 

refuse,  104. 

slop.  111. 
wash,  112. 
Ricinus  communis,  122,  135. 
Roasting,  30. 

Roborin  concentrate  feed,  110. 
Rock  salt,  159. 
Rolled  grain,  29. 
Roots,  68,  69,  94. 
Rotalia,215. 
Roughage,  57,  59,  149. 
Rules  for  purchase  of  commercial 

feeding  stuffs,  131. 
Rutabago,  74. 
Rushes,  43. 
Russula,  57. 
Rye,87,  90,  91. 

bran,  102. 

chaff,  68,  226. 

cracked,  90. 

flour,  90,  231. 

grass,  37,  38,41. 

meal,  99. 

slop,  106. 

straw,  67,  226,  230. 

Saccharification,  33,  34. 
Saccharified  starch,  186. 
Saccharose,  11,14. 
Saline,  58. 
Salt,  common,  4, 158. 

fed  animals,  192. 

hay,  60. 

in  feeding  stuffs,  160,  230,  231, 232. 

marsh  hay,  60. 

potash,  219. 
Salts,  2,  4. 

ammonia,  9. 

epsom,  218. 

inorganic,  155. 

lime,  -93. 

phosphorus,  155. 
Sampling  feed  stuffs,  132. 
Sand,  133,  134,208. 
Sand  fleas,  216. 

oats,  81. 

reed,  43. 

vetch,  50. 
Saw  dust,  33, 64, 65. 
Saw  dust  or  meal  of  fir  tree,  33. 
Scalding,  29. 
Scavengers,  222. 
Schaffnit's  method,  137. 
Sea  algea,  128. 
Sedge,  43. 
Seed  hulls,  68. 
Sedges,  35, 43. 
Serradella,  93,  209,  228,  229. 


Sesame  by-products,  121. 

Sewage,  219. 

Sewage  in  fish  ponds,  221. 

Shavings,  65. 

Shells,  hulls  and  skins,  141. 

Silage,  24,  60. 

sweet,  24,  62. 
Silica,  4. 
Silicic,  4. 
Silo,  25. 
Silo  filling,  26. 
Silver  grass,  43. 
Sinalbin,  9. 
Sinigrin,  9. 
Slimy  residue,  124. 
Slop  eczema,  70, 106 
Slop, 

rye,  106. 
corn,  106. 
cough,  106. 
dry,  107. 
rye,  106. 

sugar  refinery,  106. 
Slops,  3,  105,  106. 
Smut,  68. 

Smut  spores,  133,  143. 
Soaking,  29. 
Sodium,  4,  160. 
Sodium  salts,  5. 
Sodium  cellulose,  33,  34. 
Soft  feed  for  chickens,  207. 
Soil,  45. 
Solanin,  9. 

Solanin  poisoning,  70. 
Solanidin,  9. 
Sorghum,  49,  230. 
Sorghum  saccharatum,  135. 
Sour  grasses,  35,  43,  58. 
Sour  silage,  63. 
Soy  bean,  50,  93, 97. 
Soy  bean  cake,  122. 
Spawn,  217. 
Spear  grass,  38,41. 
Spelt  chaff,  69,  87,  230. 
Spent  hops,  104. 
Spergula  arvensis,  53. 
Spoiled  feeding  stuffs,  134. 
Spurry,  53. 
Squash,  75. 
Stable  conditions,  195. 
Stall  mangel,  159. 

temperature,  196. 
Starch,  11,13. 
Starch  grains,  137,  138. 
Starch  value  of  food,  130,  169. 
Starchy  gruels,  190. 
Steaming,  28,  29. 
Steffen  process.  111. 
Stems,  76. 
Stinging  gnats,  217. 
Stock  salt,  159. 
Storage,  16,  17. 


INDEX 


241 


Storiers,  222. 
Straw, 

barley,  67. 

bean,  68. 

buckWheat,  68. 

chaffed,  32. 

concentrate,  31. 

false  flax,  68. 

flail,  67. 

grain,  65. 

.  legume,  68. 

millet,  67, 

pea,  68. 

pulp,  33. 

rape,  33. 

rye,  67. 

spring  cereal,  178. 

summer,  65,  230. 

turnip,  33. 

vetch,  68. 

wheat,  66. 

winter  cereal,  178. 
Suberin,  11. 
Sugar,  13, 107. 

beet,  14,  74. 

by-products,  107. 

cane,  11,  14. 

fruit,  11,  13. 

grape,  11,  13. 

malt,  11,  14. 

milk,  11,  14. 
Sugar  pulp,  107,  109. 
Sugar  refinery  slops,  106. 
Sulphite,  33. 
Sulphite  cellulose,  33. 
Sulphite  lye,  ZZ. 
Sulphuricacid,  4, 11, 143,  218. 
Sunflower  seed  cake,  121,  227. 
Swedish  clover,  49,  228. 
Sweet  mashes,  34. 
Sweet  press  feed,  158. 
Sweet  silage,  24, 26,  62. 
Sweetening  in  potatoes,  17. 
Symphytum  asperrimum,  56. 

Tankage,  125,  223. 

meat  meal,  227. 
Tannicacid,  15,  94,99. 
Temperature  of  food,  167. 
Tench,  220. 

Testing  spoiled  feeding  stuffs,  134. 
Theobromin,  9. 
Thermo  precipitation,  135. 
Timothy  grass,  36,  38,  41,  228. 
Toadstools,  57. 
Torulin,  8. 
Toxic  laminitis,  109. 
Tricholoma,  57. 
Trieur,  80. 
Trifolium,  49. 
Triglochin,  43. 


Tricicum,  38. 
Trisitum,  38. 
Tropon  waste,  126. 
Tryptophan,  8. 
Tubers,  69. 
Tubercle  bacilli,  124. 
Tuberculosis,  124. 

alimentary,  124. 

feeding,  124. 
Tumelin,  110. 
Turnip,  54,  74,  229. 

seedcake,  114, 115. 
Turpentine,  2>Z. 
Tutolin,  110. 
Tyrosin,  9. 

Ulex  europeus,  56. 
Urinary  calculi,  100. 
Utilization,  150,  161. 

Vacuum  tank,  126. 

Valerianic  acid,  14. 

Vegetable  fat  emulsion  milk,  185. 

mucilage,  11,  14. 

wax,  10. 

oil,  112. 
Vetch,  14, 15,  43,  50,  52,  93, 134, 223. 

chickling,  94. 

common,  135. 

feed,  230,231. 
•  fence,  44. 

kidney,  16, 229. 

sand,  135,229. 

straw,  68. 

tufted,  44. 

winter,  135.  _ 

wood  chickling,  54. 
Vicia  sativa,  50, 135. 
Vitamins,  7,  8, 152. 
Vogl's  reaction,  134. 
Volume  of  feed  ration,  166. 

Water,  3 
Water  chess,  42. 

content,  165. 

fleas,  215,217. 

pepper,  44. 

plantain,  44. 

pure,  208. 
Waxy  stage  of  grain,  85. 
Weaning,  183,  185,  187,  191. 
Weedseeds,  136, 146. 
Weender,  method,  11. 
Weingaertneria,  43. 
Wheat,47,  90,91,  111,134. 

bran,  101, 102. 

chaff,  68. 

middlings,  102. 

straw,  66. 
Whey,  125. 
Wild  forage  plants,  44. 


242 


INDEX 


Wild  or  wind  oats,  81.  Xylan,  14. 

Wine  preparations,  107.  Xylose,  11. 
Wood  cellulose,  33. 

gum,  14.  Yarrow,  51. 

meal,  33.  Yeast,  7,  105,  227. 

rushes,43.  beer,  105. 

shavings,  65.  cooking,  105. 

Work,  dried,  105. 

consumption  of  nutrients  in  different  dry,  1,87. 

kinds  of,  154.  mineral,  105. 

Wormwood,  16.  residue,  227. 

Worthless  herbs,  44.  Yellow  rattle,  134. 


Xanthin,  9. 


Zink,  4 


